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Tflnlversits of Toronto Studies
HISTORY AND ECONOMICS
THE FUR-TRADE OF CANADA
THE FUR-TRADE OF CANADA
BY
H. A. INNIS, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Political Economy University of Toronto
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UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY Toronto: Oxford University Press, Canadian Branch
MCMXXVII
GENERAL PREFACE
The present volume is intended to inaugurate a series of studies dealing with thd chief industries of Canada. Each volume will seek to provide as thorough a presentation as possible of the industry concerned, of its particular con¬ ditions and of its main problems, of its economic organization, and in general of its contribution to the growth and prosperity of the whole country.
All the volumes in the series will be produced under the auspices of the department of Political Science in the Uni¬ versity of Toronto, and every effort will be made to maintain a high standard of accuracy and comprehensiveness. In fact it is hoped that each volume will serve as a definitive statement of the actual position of the industry at the present time.
In a new country the story of an industry has a special significance, for it is generally one of rapid development from pioneer conditions and methods brought about by ever- changing adaptation to new demands. The difficulties it has to face are different from those which exist under a long- established civilization. It presents both peculiar oppor¬ tunities and peculiar problems. We believe, therefore, that these studies will, taken as a whole, form an illuminating chapter in the history of industry.
The present volume is the result of an experiment under¬ taken in the endeavour to meet the needs of the students enrolled in the recently-established course in commerce. The experiment was conducted by Dr. Innis. Having pre¬ pared for it not only by historical researches in the Canadian Archives, but also by extensive personal investigation in the Northwest, in the course of which he travelled to the borders of the Arctic Ocean and later to the Yukon, he used the material so gathered as the basis of further studies by the
t
senior students of the course. Then, under his direction, a number of bulletins were issued, dealing with various aspects of the fur- trade. These were made available to the public through notices in the fur-trade journals and elsewhere, and were very favourably received. Owing to financial con¬ siderations only a limited number of these bulletins were supplied, but the response they met encouraged the depart¬ ment to issue the present volume, containing the more important results and conclusions arrived at. It should, however, be added that the book, though incorporating the results of these investigations, has been written wholly by Dr. Innis.
The present study does not deal with the historical development of the industry. The history of the fur-trade, which has an important bearing on the whole process of settlement and exploitation of the Canadian West, is the subject of a separate work which Dr. Innis has prepared, and which will be published in due course.
The department hopes to issue successive works at intervals of about two years. Another of its members is at present engaged on the investigation of the mining industry of Ontario and Quebec, and this will form the second study in the series. In the prosecution of these investigations, we desire to make special acknowledgment of the assistance rendered by a grant from the research fund of the University.
We hope that these volumes will have a practical value as well as an historical interest. We would welcome any suggestions bearing on the facts or conclusions presented, or any further information which any readers who are familiar with or engaged in the fur industry may wish to offer. Such communications may be addressed either to the department, or directly to Professor Innis.
R. M. MacIver
AUTHOR’S PREFACE
The following work is the first part of a study of the fur- trade, and is largely descriptive of the modern trade. Re¬ liance has been placed to a very large extent on the actual work presented in the separate studies on which it is based. The data have been gathered, and the conclusions suggested, by the students. The studies have been rearranged, addi¬ tional material has been collected, and fresh interpretations have been made, but the basic work remains unchanged. Acknowledgments have been made throughout the work to the students concerned.
There remains the hopeless task of acknowledging obliga¬ tions to those who have granted their assistance at various stages of the work. I am indebted to numerous people at present engaged in the fur-trade, especially in the Mackenzie River district, but mention should be made of the kindness of Messrs. W. Phillips, C. Sinclair, L. Romanet, and A. Brabant, officials of the Hudson’s Bay Company; to Mr. J. K. Cornwall, of the Northern Trading Company, and to Mr. T. W. Harris, Indian agent at Fort Simpson. It would be impossible to thank sufficiently the numerous individuals of that district who spared no effort in placing their information at my disposal. In the actual preparation of the work I have been greatly indebted to many members of the staff of the University of Toronto. To Mr. W. S. Wallace, as Librarian of the University and as editor of the University of Toronto Studies, I am under especially heavy obligations. Dr. M. Palyi, of the Handelshochschule, Berlin, has kindly supplied a bibliography of the more important German works on the subject. Mr. F. C. C. Lynch and his staff at the Natural Resources Intelligence Service in Ottawa have rendered invaluable service at all times. Perhaps more than all I have been indebted to Professor R. M. Maclver for his constant encouragement throughout the preparation of the work.
H. A. Innis
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chap.
I. Introduction page
§1. Fur bearers of North America . 11
§2. The modern demand for furs . 14
II. Prices of Furs . 18
III. The Production of Furs
§1. Conservation . 48
§2. Fur-farming . 66
§3. The problem of supply . 75
IV. The Manufacture of Furs
§1. Technique . 161
§2. Industrial organization . 119
V. Marketing Organization . 127
VI. Summary . 146
VII. Bibliography .
VIII. Appendices . 147
I. INTRODUCTION §1. Fur-bearers of North America
Standard works of reference describe fur1 as a hairy covering of the skin of animals which has, lying alongside it, a longer covering called the overhair or, by fur-men, the guard hair. The roots of the guard hair penetrate more deeply in the skin than those of the fur. The fur is soft, silky, and barbed lengthwise, whereas the overhair is straight, smooth, and comparatively rigid. The function of the over¬ hair is to keep the fur filaments apart, to protect them from injury, and to prevent them from felting. The purpose of the fur, of course, is to protect from cold, in the case of most land animals, or from water, in the case of “amphibious animals (e.g., the beaver), or from general possibility of injury, in the case of subterranean animals (e.g., the mole). In land animals2 whose fur is primarily a protection against cold, a change in season has direct physiological, results. “Amphibious” animals are affected similarly, but in a less pronounced degree. With the advance of winter a layer of fat is formed under the skin, the skin itself becomes firm and white, and fur appears as a thick covering, often of a different colour. Conversely, with the advance of summer, the fur and hair are supplanted by new hair with a typical colour, while the skin with the disappearance of fat con¬ sumed during the winter and the shedding of the outer epidermis becomes thick and has a greenish tinge. T e
!See w. E. Austin, Principles and Practice of Fur Dressing and Fur Dyeing
(New York, 1922), Chs. I-II. , , .
2The fur comes in during the autumn, and improves in length and density until January and February. After these months the colour begins to fade. With prime land furs the leather is thin and papery. When the fur is shed, the leather becomes very much thicker. With amphibious animals the seasonal changes are less noticeable. See Beaver Magazine, Winnipeg, January, 1921.
12
The Fur-Trade of Canada
change in colour is apparently a part of the adjustment to the change in season. Generally the amount of pigment increases as the equator is approached and decreases toward the poles. White surfaces1 are poor heat conductors and serve to retain animal heat, as in polar animals — bear and fox — and as in animals which become white in winter — ermine and hare.
The physiological adaptation2 of fur for protection may be shown more clearly. The finest, closest fur is that of the “amphibious” carnivora and rodentia, such as fur seals, otters, mink, beaver, and muskrats. Moreover, on these animals the underneath fur is thicker than that of the back. The opposite is typical of land fur-,bearers. Most fur-bearing animals have darker hair on the back and lighter hair on the sides and underneath. Animals living in exposed areas, along the open coasts or in bare tracts of country, in which long distances must be covered to get food, are generally large, strong-limbed, and have coarse fur. Animals living in more
‘Various biologists hold, on the other hand, that white coloration in northern latitudes is primarily for protective purposes.
SSee Introduction to H. Poland, Fur-Bearing Animals in Nature and in Commerce (London, 1892). It would be difficult to agree with the following comment, but the conclusions are suggestive: “Nature furnishes every Animal here [Hudson Bay] with extraordinary Furs to resist the Cold, that gradually fall off as the warm Weather returns; and which is somewhat extraordinary, so it happens with Dogs and Cats brought thither from Europe. As in all the Parts of the Bodies of animals, which are furthest from the Heart, such as Feet, Claws and Tails, the Blood is colder, and Circulation slower, it happens from thence, that those Extremities are very apt to freeze. But it is very well worthy notice that few of the Animals of this Country have long Tails or Legs; for Instance, the Bears, Rabbits, Hares, American Cats, Porcupines, See., have all short ones; and those that have long Tails, as the Fox, &c., have those parts surprisingly protected by long bushy Hair, which keeps them from the sense of cold” (Henry Ellis, A Voyage to Hudson Bay by the Dobbs GalDy and California in the years 1746 and 1747 for discovering a Northwest passage, London, 1748, pp. 178-9). It may be said in general that Arctic forms and those living at high altitudes are the most plentifully supplied with hair, while tropical and sub¬ tropical forms are sparsely covered. An aquatic life tends to reduce the hair coat; if the animal is semi-aquatic as seals and otters the hair is reduced to a fine plush (H. H. Wilder, History of the Human Body, New York, 1909, p. 100).
Fur-Bearers of North America
13
densely wooded areas1 in which food and shelter are com¬ paratively abundant have finer fur with depth of colour and lustre. An unusually severe winter with consequent scarcity of food and shelter tends/ to produce thin coats and poorer fur. Forest fires with their destruction of food and shelter have well-known effects. ( Young animals generally have thicker coats than old ones, as in the bear.
The more important fur-bearing animals are of the orders2 Carnivora and Rodentia.3 These orders are found largely in the Palaearctic (Eurasia) and the Nearctic (North America) zoogeographical regions or in the Holarctic (Heilprin) region. Among the Rodentia the “amphibious” animals, such as the muskrat and beaver, are outstanding fur-bearers. Of these, the muskrat and the American beaver (Castor canadensis Kuhl) are confined to North America. The family Castoridae (beaver) is confined entirely to the Holarctic region. Among the Carnivora the family Mustelidae (marten, ermine) is most numerously represented in the subarctic portions of the same area. These animals are mostly terrestrial. They are small, having slender bodies, short legs, round heads, and powerful jaws, and live on smaller mammalia and birds. The family Otariidae (fur seal) is found along the Pacific coast south from Behring Strait. The carcajou, marten, polar bear, and arctic fox are common to the Palaearctic
■Mr. A. Brabant, fur-trade commissioner for the Hudson’s Bay Company, states that the finest furs are obtained in most densely wooded districts, and that depth of colouring and lustre of pelt increase in direct relation to degree of forestation because of shelter, shade, and better food. Skins from Labrador and British Columbia are preferred (see Illustrated Canadian Forestry Magazine, Toronto, December, 1922).
2This study purposely omits the order Ungulata. Wool is strictly not fur, but a fine curly hair. The buffalo are consequently not included. For a short sketch of the lives and habitat of fur-bearing animals, see H. Poland, Fur- Bearing Animals in Nature and in Commerce (London, 1892), E. Brass, A us dem Reiche der Pdze (Berlin, 1925), Marcus Petersen, The Fur Traders and Fur¬ bearing Animals (Buffalo, N.Y., 1914).
3See Atlas of Zoogeography, Bartholomew’ s Physical Atlas, Vol. V, 1911, part II, f.
14
The Fur-Trade of Canada
and the Canadian sub-region (Nearctic). The north tem¬ perate areas are the dominant fur-producing territories.
In the Nearctic zoogeographical region the more im¬ portant fur-bearers1 are found in the forest areas and along the shore line of the Arctic regions. The significant forest areas2 stretch northwesterly across the continent following the general direction of the isotherms. As a result of varia¬ tions in temperature and precipitation these areas shade on the north into the barren grounds and on the south into the plains. Geologically they include the southerly portion of the Precambrian formation with its numerous lakes and rivers and its irregular drainage system and the adjoining rich soils of the glacial deposits.. For the purposes of this — study it may be concluded that the fur-trade of North America is limited to definite areas — the Northern forests and the Arctic, the Pacific and the Atlantic littorals. Although fur-bearing animals are distributed over a much more southerly range, the element of temperature has made this territory much less important, especially from the standpoint of the production of the finer varieties of fur.3
§2. The Modern Demand for Furs
Fur-production in Canada has entered a new era. The new developments assumed greater importance toward the
1For an excellent survey of the range of animals see E. T. Seton, Life Histories of Northern Animals (New York, 1909). See also Elliott Coues, Fur Bearing Animals, a Monograph of North American Mustelidae (Department of Interior, Miscellaneous Publications, No. 8, Washington, 1877); Bernard Rogan Ross, A Popular Treatise on the Fur-hearing Animals of the Mackenzie River District (Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, Vol. VI, 1861, pp. 5-36); Roderick Mac- Farlane, Notes on Mammals collected and observed in the northern Mackenzie River District-, C. Mair and R. MacFarlane, Through the Mackenzie Basin (Toronto, 1908); E. A. Preble, A Biological Investigation of the Athabaska- Mackenzie Region (North American Fauna, no. 27, Washington, 1908).
2See Allas of Canada, Ottawa, 1916, pp. 9-12, 17-20.
JIn preparing this introduction I have been greatly indebted to the assistance of Mr. W.-J. K. Harkness, of the Department of Biology, in the University of Toronto.
The Modern Demand for Furs
15
latter part of the nineteenth century, gathered force with the turning of the century, and reached a climax with the world war. We shall attempt an analysis of the important trends of this movement in the hope that some conception of future developments may be gained.
As an index of an important change, no writer on the subject fails to mention the rising price of furs, although few commodities present greater difficulties in a study of prices. Fur is a commodity which varies in size and quality with each species, with each animal, within each district, in the same season, in different seasons, with the trapper, and with the trader. The difficulty of determining a change in price is usually great. Nevertheless, attempts which have been made to show a rise in price have, in spite of innumerable difficulties, been decidedly convincing. Herr Emil Brass1 has collected prices on the London fur-market for No. 1 muskrat from York Factory district from 1882 to 1910, showing a rise from 16 cents to 47 cents in 1909 and 87 cents in 1910. No. 11 mink for the same period and district increased from 73 cents to $6.34. No. 1 dark red fox increased from $3.11 to $16.55; and No. 1 large lynx from $4.87 to $39.85. Prices of other furs have shown a similar tendency.2 Australian oppossum (Adelaide prime blue) increased during 1880 to 1910 from 16 cents to $1.95; wallaby from 10 cents to $1.70 (highest prices); kangaroo from 12 cents to $1.45; wombat from 12 cents to 73 cents; native cats from 4 cents to 49 cents; bastard chinchilla from 73 cents to $9.73; black fox (best skin) from $632.70 to $2628.00; sea-otter from $584.00 to $1703.33. During 1890 to 1910 Japan marten increased from 35 cents to $3.81, Japan fox from 83 cents to $4.05; raw Persian from $2.05 to $6.70; stone marten from $1.43 to $6.66; marmot (Orenburg) from 10 cents to 90 cents; and
‘Emil Brass, Aus dem Reiche der Pelze (Berlin, 1925), p. 437; also in J. W. Jones, Fur-farming in Canada (Ottawa, 1914), p. 216; and graphically in Pro¬ ceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, 3rd series, Vol. VIII, p. LXIX.
*Emil Brass, op. cit., p. 438; J. W. Jones, op. cit., app. X, p. 215.
16
The Fur-Trade of Canada
from 1900 to 1910 Japan mink increased from 12 cents to 60 cents; Chinese weasel from 7 cents to 33 cents; skunk (the best lot) from $2.07 to $7.06. A comparison of prices during the war and the post-war periods shows an even more pronounced rise.1 The various causes of the rise in prices represent the subject of this study.
On the demand side, fur is a commodity which enters into modern commerce because of its suitability as clothing. Its warmth-giving qualities render it especially valuable for peoples in the north and south temperate zones and the colder regions. The relative scarcity of the important small fur¬ bearing animals and the dense population of these areas, on the other hand, reduce the importance of fur as a product contributing to the total clothing supply. The development of textile industries, especially wool and cotton, as the staple clothing commodities has made fur a minor product. It has a decidedly limited use, and has developed as a sub¬ sidiary to the important articles of clothing. This sub¬ sidiary character of fur and its adaptation to limited demands has given it special significance as outer clothing in the decided seasonal character of temperate climates. Its use is largely limited to the winter seasons. It is especially adapted to outdoor wear in garments such as cloaks, which can readily be put on when needed or taken off when not essential to warmth, and muffs, scarfs, or trimmings which are supplementary to cotton or woollen garments.
With these limitations manufactured fur garments repre¬ sent to the wearers an appreciable overhead charge. Con¬ sequently furs tend to be worn by more wealthy people. The supply of furs in spite of these limitations is inadequate to the manufacture of sufficient garments to meet the de¬ mands of a large population. Furs, because of their scarcity
lSee statistics of Hudson’s Bay Company’s auction sale prices, April, 1923, January, 1924, and March and April, 1924. Emil Brass, op. cit., pp. 440-452. For prices on the Leipzig fur market, 1914-1920, ibid., p. 439. For other price lists see Reports of St. Louis fur sales, Montreal fur sales, New York auction sales, Prices 'current of Hudson’s Bay Company’s fur sales, issued by P. R. Poland and Son, and C. M. Lampson and Co. sales.
The Modern Demand for Furs
17
and consequent expensiveness, are limited to a relatively small portion of the population. To a very large extent <r furs1 have tended to become exclusively women’s apparel, and the finer, more expensive, furs exclusively the apparel of wealthy women. Fine furs become more valuable because of their expensive character. V
/'The demand for furs,is located primarily in centres of ' , mT% population which support a large leisure class. These are areas with populations in which class distinctions have been built up as inherently a part of the social organization, or which have greatly increased the production of goods through new processes, as in countries recently brought under the sweep of machine industry, and in which a large surplus of goods exists because of improved technique or reduced consumption of a large part of the population. An important characteristic of these areas is the growth of large cities2 3 made possible with the existence of a surplus of goods and necessitated by the new technique of machine industry and the factory system. Countries located within the temperate zones over which the Industrial Revolution has spread, including particularly Europe and North America, the southern portions of South America and South Africa and Australia, and countries which had built up an elaborate social organization, such as China and (in the pre-war period) Russia, are important consumers of furs. The more densely populated of those areas and the largest cities con¬ stitute the more important markets. The demand has increased tremendously with increasing population, increasing j-
urbanization, and the spread of machine industry. )
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ /
iThe thesis worked out in Thorstein Veblen, Theory of the Leisure Class (New York 1899), as to the position of women in the leisure classes, appears to be very much to the point with reference to this commodity Similar con¬ clusions are supported by W. Sombart, Luxus und Kapitalismus (Leipzig, 1913).
2See A. F. Weber, The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century (New York,
1899), Ch. Ill, passim. .
3Mr ) W. Jones places great stress on the automobile as a factor in the
increasing demand for furs. For mention of specific furs affected by the auto¬ mobile, see A. Belden, The Fur Trade of America (New York, 1918), p.223. Avia¬ tion has also had its effects. Ibid., p. 181.
II. PRICES OF FURS
A general statement1 of parallel figures for various furs over a series of years cannot be accepted as positive proof of absolute rise in price. Prices of furs have increased partly as a result of the general rise in the prices of all commodities, as shown, for instance, in the graph for wholesale prices on page 21. The marked rise of fur prices2 during the wrar and post-war periods was partly the result of currency changes and general inflation.
Mr. Salter, in a study of prices3 of furs, has attempted an .analysis of the situation to show the relative importance of factors of demand and supply and of a general rising price level. Recognizing the difficulty of using the price of one grade of fur as an index, he has attacked the problem by comparing the prices of a staple fur product (York Factory, No. 1 muskrat) and the average prices of muskrat, and also of fine fur (York Factory No. 1 dark red fox), with average prices of red fox. He has constructed index numbers of both prices of separate grades and average prices with the average
'For a comparison of peak prices of various furs in 1875, 1913, and 1920 , see Marcus Petersen, Petersen’s Fur Traders' Lexicon (New York, 1920), pp. 82-5.' Various references are given to prices of furs during the past two centuries and more, but the value of these price statistics for comparative purposes is greatly overemphasized. In most cases no account is taken of the general change in price levels. For a list of furs as compared in this way, see H. Lomer, Der Rauch- warenhandel (Leipzig, 1864), pp. 20-21. See also, for an extended discussion of long run factors determining fur prices, ibid., pp. 94-100.
’See the rising prices on the Leipzig market from 1914-1920, to a very large extent the result of currency depreciation (E. Brass, op. cit., p. 439).
3Mr. P. E. Salter has given a general description of the various factors which should be taken into account in the early part of his work. This includes refer¬ ences to sales organization, theories on fur production, fashions, substitution, and other details. A large portion of the work is statistical. Data on prices and sales are based entirely on his study, and no further reference will be given. This study ls.available for further consultation at the Department of University Extension, University of Toronto.
The Prices of Furs
19
price of 1890-1899 as a base. A correlation of +.98 has been found for the muskrat prices, and an equally close correlation for red fox prices is evident from the graphs 1 and 2. With this close correlation he has assumed a statement of average prices as a reliable guide for a study of the general trend. For this purpose he has taken the prices1 of twelve important
Graph 1
^hese prices are taken from Hudson’s Bay Company’s auction sales. The sales statistics also refer to the Hudson’s Bay Company. See J. W. Jones, op. cit., pp. 203-214.
20
The Fur-Trade of Canada
Canadian furs for the period from 1857 to 1911 — lynx, silver fox, red fox, marten, mink, fisher, muskrat, wolf, wolverine, skunk, land otter, and raccoon. To indicate the general trend he has combined the average prices of these twelve furs, and constructed index numbers with an average price for 1867 to 1877 = 100. This base corresponds to the base used in the Sauerbeck index numbers for wholesale prices. Since the Sauerbeck index includes the same period they have been used as an index of the general price levels (see
Graph 2
The Prices of Furs
21
Graph 3). The graphs show quite clearly that fur prices as compared with wholesale prices begin to rise after 1880, and in a most striking manner after 1900. Since the turning of the century fur prices have increased to an unprecedented extent. '
The general trend is shown in a decline from 1860 to 1871, a marked increase from ,1872 to 1876, a period of relative
Graph 3
22
The Fur-Trade of Canada
stability from 1877 to 1898, and a rapid increase from 1899 to 1910. These changes correspond to a period of rising wholesale prices from 1858 to 1864 and a decline to 1870, rising prices to 1873, falling prices from 1873 to 1896, and rising prices from 1897 to 1910. In the period frdm 1858 to 1871 an increasing supply of fur, following the opening of new territory to competitors, was apparently responsible for a decline in price. Increase in wholesale prices in the succeeding period was apparently a part of the phenomenon responsible for the rise in prices of furs. The period of stability and rapidly rising prices during the later years was the result of decreasing supply and increasing demand. A further important characteristic of fur prices may be noted in relation to wholesale prices. Fur prices are unusually susceptible to a change in the price level — a characteristic which is most striking after 1900. A period of prosperity is the cause of a marked increase in prices, and a depression is the cause of a marked decline. Fluctuations are unusually violent, and react immediately to changes in business con¬ ditions.
Similar tendencies are difficult to detect in the period following 1910. Mr. Salter has taken four furs — -mink (dark), muskrat (best winter and fall), raccoon, and skunk (black, Canadian) — for which prices have been given by the Depart¬ ment of Labour for the period 1890-1924. A combined index number has been constructed with the average 1890-9 = 100 (see Graph 4). Wholesale prices continued to rise steadily from 1910 to 1914, ve*ry rapidly to 1920, declined to 1922, and rose steadily to 1924. Fur prices rose steadily to 1913, declined rapidly to 1915, increased to a very marked extent to 1920, declined to 1921, increased in 1922, but fell off in 1923-24. The decline in 1915, the rise in 1922, and the decline in 1923-24 were points of divergence from the trend of wholesale prices. The variation in 1915 was the result of the disappearance of an important part of the European market. The fur markets in the later post-war years have failed to reach a position of stability as a result of general
The Prices of Furs
23
economic conditions and the position of Russia as an important producer. The effects of the war on the fur- trade preclude an analysis as to general trends. This index number of four furs, all of which are staple furs, and two of which are relatively coarse furs, shows more closely the relation between fur prices and business fluctuations. The
s
Graph 4
24
The Fur-Trade of Canada
index number (1857-1911) included, in addition to these four staple furs, a large percentage of fine fur. As a result this index number fluctuates more rapidly and responds more quickly to changes in business conditions. The later index number (1890-1924) follows the general trend of wholesale prices much more closely.1
From a general survey it may be tentatively concluded (1) that the change in price level has been due in the long run to a decrease in supply, especially since 1900; (2) that demand has also increased since that date; (3) that short run changes in demand are effective in producing price changes of all furs, but especially of fine furs ; (4) that long run changes in demand and supply have been most effective in the prices of fine furs; (5) that the business cycle is an important factor in short-run changes in price level.
The value of these tentative conclusions may be tested with reference to specific furs. The demand for furs has been described2 as the result of several factors. “The qualities which make a fur desired depend first of all on the nature of the fur itself. Pretty colour, lustre, thickness, softness, length, uniformity and regular fall of the hair are the chief points to be considered. While the leather part of the hair is of secondary importance in the evaluation of a fur, it must possess strength, lightness of weight, and when properly dressed would be supple and have a certain firmness or 'feel’. The abundance or scarcity of a fur-bearing animal also determines the value of the fur. ... A third factor which has an influence on the value of furs is the prevailing style of fashion.”
1A suggestion is made that the prices of fur collected for the report on wholesale prices to 1917 were inadequate in representing the price situation of the fur market. Muskrat (best winter and fall) was a lower grade than spring. Raccoon and skunk were staple furs, but not representative of northern areas. Mink was the only fur which might be regarded as a higher priced fine fur. The inclusion of marten and fox would have done much to offset these tendencies. The present wholesale prices on fur might be improved by the inclusion of other fur prices.
2See W. E. Austin, Principles and Practice of Fur Dyeing (New York, 1922).
The Prices of Furs
25
Silver fox has been regarded as a fur of the highest value. Mr. Salter has shown graphically the relation between the numbers of silver fox sold and the price level during the period 1857-1911 (see Graph 5). The conclusion immediately suggests itself that the 'factor of supply is important. An increase in supply is represented generally by a fall in price and a decrease in supply by a rise in price. The highest
Graph 5
26
The Fur-Trade of Canada
points in numbers sold occur in 1860, 1869, 1878, 1888, 1897, and 1907, and the lowest points in prices in 1871, 1877, 1885, 1888, 1897, 1901, 1904 and 1907. The lowest points in numbers sold occur in 1865, 1874, 1884, 1891, 1902, and 1910, and the highest points in prices in 1861, 1875, 1884, 1893, 1900, 1903, 1906, and 1910. The nine to ten year cycle in production has a noticeable effect on prices.
Graph 6
The Prices of Furs
27
Supply, as shown especially in the peak years of 1869 and 1897, affected prices. Throughout the period the total supply has changed slightly. A possible decline toward the end of the period should be offset in the succeeding years by an increase from fox-farming. Fluctuations were even more violent than in the case of the combined index. Silver fox is essentially a luxury' product responding with unusual rapidity to changes in economic conditions. The general tendency appears to show an increasing demand, especially since 1900. This tendency was fostered by the difficulty of making substitutes, since the silver hair cannot be imitated, by the increasing use of substitutes for other furs, and by inherent scarcity and expensiveness. Fashion probably exercises a less direct effect on prices of silver fox. The importance of this fur to Canada is partly indicated by the effect of a fluctuating supply of Canadian furs in the Hudson’s Bay Company’s sales and its effect on prices.
The close relationship between the silver fox and the red fox warrants a consideration of the latter. Mr. Salter has found a very high correlation of +.948 in prices, a correlation of +.74 in numbers (see Graph 6). The high and low points of production correspond with low and high points in price level as in the case of silver fox. On the other hand, there are important differences. Supply fluctu¬ ated much more widely than with silver fox. Throughout the period the tendency toward a decline was more pro¬ nounced. But in spite of much greater fluctuation in supply, prices fluctuated much less widely. Prices tended to decline to 1897, but rose rapidly after that year. Price fluctuations correspond much more closely to wholesale prices. The causes of the variations include the general character of red fox as a more staple fur than silver fox, and the greater possibilities of substitution through imitation. Red fox is less violently affected by business conditions. Fashions have a more important influence. But it still remains a product with similar tendencies to those shown in silver fox. It is again an important Canadian product.
28
The Fur-Trade of Canada
Land otter is a species of fine fur which shows tendencies similar to fox (see Graph 7). The number of land otters sold through the Hudson Bay Company’s auction has steadily declined from the high point of 1866. This decline has been accompanied by varying fluctuations of approximately three years’ average. The relation between fluctuations of prices and production is evident, but not obvious. Prices are
Graph 7
29
The Prices of Furs
influenced throughout the period by declining supply, but other factors are important. Declining supply becomes more obvious after 1888. Rising prices become conspicuous from the same date. In the period prior to 1890 prices reached the highest points in 1859, 1873, 1882, and 1889; and the lowest points in 1865, 1878, and 1885. These fluctuations are apparently explained by changes in fashion, and possibly
Graph 8
30
The Fur-Trade of Canada
by the general fur situation. After 1890, and especially after 1900, otter follows fluctuations similar to those of red fox. Its increasing scarcity and its value as a fine fur have placed it on a basis in which changes in economic conditions are reflected sharply in prices. The tendency of land otter to take on similar characteristics to those of fine furs is significant in the general trend of fur prices. It becomes less subject to the influence of fashion as it becomes more scarce. The prices of sea otter throw very little light on the general problem. The marked increase in price and practical ex¬ tinction of the fur suggest problems of the future following the evident decline in more valuable furs. Disappearance and scarcity of most valuable furs leads to an increase in demand for furs only less valuable.
Fluctuations in the supply of fisher follow definite cycles of nine and ten years (see Graph 8). Price fluctuations are affected by these supply cycles, but demand is again im¬ portant. From the highest point of production in 1870 the supply has steadily declined throughout the period, reaching the lowest point in 1905. Prices, on the other hand, have also declined from the highest point in 1876 to 1904, increasing rapidly from that date. Fluctuations show a striking similarity to those of otter. On the other hand, price changes were much less pronounced as a result of the definite cyclical supply. After 1908 fisher prices increased rapidly, and the fur was apparently added in a more definite fashion to the list of furs which became expensive through scarcity.
Marten (see Graph 9) is also a fur which has definite cycles of production of nine and ten years, the peak of production coming three and four years earlier than fisher,1 and two or three years earlier than red fox and lynx. In the earlier part of the period 1857-1911 prices are affected closely by supply. In the later period the influence of changes in supply are less conspicuous. Throughout the period numbers decline steadily, and especially after 1894.
*E. T. Seton has stated from this evidence that lynx and fisher are enemies of marten. See his Life Histories of Northern Animals, p. 919.
The Prices of Furs
31
Prices declined from a high point in 1872 to 1894, and increased rapidly after that date. From 1894 to 1911 fluctuations were similar to those of land otter and red fox, although marten prices were much steadier than either of these furs. During the earlier period marten prices responded more quickly to changes in supply, and followed very closely the price fluctuations of' fisher. Throughout the period marten and fisher prices have a low correlation of +.39.
Graph 9
560
340
|
- Pve/ape Prices of Afar7en //ouso7 JiayCb’s 4 Sa7es /3S7-/P//. Ptea/ye 77^/00. - M/rrriter cf /forTer? /k7/s //udscn Co's Saies /257-/P/ Piertrpe /£6’777 |
|||||||||||||||||
|
1 1 1 |
|||||||||||||||||
|
!t - • |
/ |
1 \ |
|||||||||||||||
|
— r 1 1 » |
1 t / t |
\ \ |
1 1 |
+ |
|||||||||||||
|
/ 1 1 1 |
1 1 \ |
\ t \ 1 \ 1 |
_ |
j/ |
|||||||||||||
|
\ |
# ' |
\ » i |
\ » \ 1 \ 1 |
1 I 1 |
\ \ % / |
||||||||||||
|
. / |
-ft* |
\ i |
\ % % |
1 » |
/\ / |
1 t «./ |
/ i |
A |
|||||||||
|
V |
\S |
fW |
1 t \ 1 \ |
4 4 / 4 |
\ 1 t |
i |
/ |
\_ . |
/ * 1 1 1 |
||||||||
|
1 |
* V |
t ~\ f \ * |
|||||||||||||||
|
V |
\ \/ |
||||||||||||||||
300-
2&0
260
240
220
ISO
160
140
100
60
401
20
las? 60 63 66 69 72 75 73 81 84 87 90 93 % 9? 1952 05 08 II
32
The Fur-Trade of Canada
Marten is essentially a staple fine fur, and consequently the pronounced rise after 1894 and 1897 was a part of the general movement. On the other hand, neither the rise was as rapid nor the fluctuations as violent as in such expensive furs as red fox and silver fox.
Mink (see Graph 10) is in many ways closely dependent on fluctuations in marten. Prices of marten and mink have a correlation of +.882. Supply fluctuates with a seven to
Graph 10
The Prices of Furs
33
twelve year cycle, the peak usually falling two or three years later than marten. Sales tend to increase to 1885 and to decrease after that date, reaching the lowest point in 1909. Prices follow the trend shown with marten as is indicated in the high correlation, beginning at the highest point in 1872, declining more rapidly because of the greatly increased supply in 1886, but rising generally after 1894. Fluctuations
Graph 10
34
The Fur-Trade of Canada
were not as marked as in the case of red fox, but they reflected changes in economic conditions in a similar fashion. The relative stability of mink prices is shown in a correlation of — .49 between the number of mink sold and prices during the period 1900-1911. Mink is also a staple fine fur caught over wider areas than marten. During the period 1910 to
Graph 11
The Prices of Furs
35
1924 mink prices declined to 1915; they increased rapidly to 1920, declined to 1923, and rose in 1924.
Lynx (see Graph 11) is the classic instance of cyclical production, because of its dependence on the rabbit. Its high points of production correspond with a nine and ten year cycle, and follow that of fox. The coefficient of cor¬ relation between the numbers of lynx and fox sold is +.695. The highest points were reached in 1868 and in 1888, the smaller peaks occurring in 1858, 1878, 1897. Throughout the period a slight tendency toward a decline is evident.. Fluctuations in supply are reflected directly in prices. The years 1861, 1886, 1889, 1894, 1901, and 1904 appear to show the influence of other factors. As with other furs, the rise after 1900 becomes most prominent, and supply appears to be of less effect. The coefficient for the whole period (1857- 1911) between numbers and prices is —.28, and for the period 1857-1900 is -.49. Prices of lynx follow very closely prices of red fox, giving an unusual coefficient of .98. The conditions of demand for the two furs are undoubtedly similar. Both furs are in demand for similar goods — scarves, muffs, and trimmings.
The furs hitherto discussed are generally described as fine furs. Prices are, as a rule, at a high level, and the animals are caught in all years. A marked increase in price will affect the supply to a slight extent. Greater efforts may be made to secure a larger number by trapping, and more trappers may concentrate on these furs; but on the whole the increase will not be pronounced, since these furs are the occasion for most of the trapping activity in any case. A discussion of muskrat and skunk as animals in which a rise in price may lead to a marked increase in supply .should, give interesting results. Moreover, these furs become increasingly the basis for imitations of the more expensive furs.
Muskrat accordingly has a cyclical production of approxi¬ mately ten years (see Graphs 12a and 12b). The high points of production occur, however, at points of low production for lynx and other animals. Flight prices and scarcity of finer urs
36
The Fur-Trade of Canada
lead to an increase in the demand for muskrat, and to an increase in production. The general tendency of sales is decidedly upward— an indication not of increasing numbers, but of increased trapping following the rise in price and scarcity of finer furs. Decline in production conversely follows an increase in the sales of other furs. The natural cycle for muskrat, on the other hand, may follow the cycle
Graph 12a
The Prices of Furs
37
for other animals inversely — a marked increase in muskrat population occurring during a period of decline for other animals. Muskrat prices are also related to the prices of other furs. A marked increase in production is accompanied by a fall in price and a' decline in production by a rise in price. A cycle in which increasing supply leads to decreasing price and in turn to a decreasing supply and a rising price,
Graph 12b
38
The Fur-Trade of Canada
followed by an increase in supply, appears to be evident. During the period 1910 to 1924 muskrat prices appear to have fluctuated in the manner characteristic of fur prices in those years. The increasing importance of muskrat in the manufacture of substitutes for more expensive furs has led to marked increase in production and to a general tendency toward higher prices.
The Prices of Furs
39
Skunk (see Graphs 13a and 13b) has a cyclical production of nine to ten years in the later years corresponding closely with lynx. Production increased to 1886, but fell off in later years, especially after the high point in 1907. Prices fluctuated with supply, but not in the pronounced fashion which might be expected from marked increases in production. Prices
40
The Fur-Trade of Canada
declined from the highest point in 1872 to the lowest point in 1898, and rose steadily to 1907 and rapidly after that date. In the period after 1910 prices followed a trend similar to other furs. Skunk is a fur which came rapidly into pro¬ minence as a staple product following the rising prices of finer furs and the increasing demand for furs. As with other furs, evidences of a decline are apparent.
Graph 14a
The Prices of Furs
41
Statistics of the supply of raccoon (see Graphs 14a and 14b) are not adequate to a careful study. Price fluctuations are un¬ usually rapid and abrupt. Prices rise steadily to a high point in 1888, decline to 1898, rise to 1907, and show the usual fluctuations resulting from business conditions. The rise is unusually rapid from 1908 to 1911. During later years, 1910-1924, prices followed 'the general trend of other furs.
42
The Fur-Trade of Canada
Wolf skins (see Graph 15) show a tendency to decline from highest points of sales in 1859 and 1866 to 1905. Pro¬ duction follows a nine and ten year cycle. Prices are affected closely by fluctuations in supply. On the whole, prices have remained unusually stable as compared with other furs even after 1900. Wolf is not a fine fur, and being of a coarse hair,
Graph 15
The Prices of Furs
43
more difficult to adapt to imitations, it has not entered the general movements of furs to a pronounced degree.
Wolverine (see Graph 16) is also a coarse fur, in demand largely among Eskimos and trappers rather than in the fine fur market. Supply fluctuates with eight to ten year cycles, and prices change in directly opposite fashion. The supply, on the whole, has declined. < Prices have risen throughout the period. The rise in price in the latter part of the period
Graph 16
44
The Fur-Trade of Canada
corresponds closely with wolf rather than other furs. The two prices have a correlation of +.60.
The evidence regarding the change in the price level of furs since 1857 may be briefly summarized in the accompany¬ ing chart (Table A). With all furs the tendency toward a decrease in sales after 1900, and the tendency toward higher price levels after that date, is shown in the grouping of minus signs for sales and plus signs for prices. Throughout the period large sales tend to be grouped about a ten year cycle, 1857-60, 1866-70, 1878-9, 1884-8, 1897-8, 1907-8. Low prices are significant, 1858, 1867-71, 1878, 1885, 1897, 1904, and 1911. After 1900 prices fluctuate much more widely, indicat¬ ing that supply occupies a relatively less important position as a determining factor. Low sales are grouped about the periods 1861-5, 1870-4, 1880-4, 1891-2, 1901-2, 1905, 1909-10, and high prices are pronounced in 1863-4, 1872-3, 1893, 1900, 1903, 1910. Again, after 1900, high prices are
much more conspicuous and less closely related to supply. The long run situation appears to show a decline in pro¬ duction after 1900, but of much greater importance, a marked increase in demand. Short run tendencies, the result of changes in fashion and of business fluctuations, become increasingly important with rising prices, but, on the other hand, the effects of these fluctuations on the increasing values is less pronounced.
Further light is thrown on the situation through reference to individual furs. Evidence of a rise in prices is most con¬ spicuous for the rarest and most expensive furs, as shown in silver fox and red fox. Later, however, the rise becomes conspicuous for the more common fur, such as muskrat and skunk. Already it might be said that these have ceased to be recognized as common fur.
The significance of this situation to Canada cannot be overemphasized. A study of Hudson’s Bay Company sales and prices has specific bearing on Canadian production. The period ynder consideration was characterized by increasing competition, and it cannot be urged that these sales repre-
TABLE A: CHANGE IN PRICE LEVEL OP' FURS
Sales ~ Prices
|
Lynx |
Red fox |
Silver fox |
Marten |
Mink |
U V -C |
Land otter |
Muskrat |
Wolverine |
Wolf |
Skunk |
1 Lynx |
Red fox |
Silver fox |
Marten |
Mink |
Fisher |
Land otter |
Muskrat |
Wolverine |
Wolf |
Skunk |
c s C- rc OC |
|||
|
1857 . . . |
T |
— |
=fc |
+ |
-t |
T |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
1858 . . . |
+ |
+ |
✓ |
= |
- |
- |
+ |
+ |
|||||||||||||||||
|
1859. . . |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
1860. . . |
+ |
+ |
= |
_ |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
1861 . . . |
— |
+ |
— |
— |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
1862 . . . |
+ |
— |
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
1863 . . . |
— |
+ |
— |
+ |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
1864 . . . . |
- |
— |
+ |
+ |
+ |
— |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
1865 . . . . |
— |
- |
= |
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
1866. . . . |
± |
— |
± |
— |
+ |
— |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
1837. . . . |
- |
± |
— |
= |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
: 1868 . . . . |
± |
± |
+ |
+ |
= |
+ |
~ |
||||||||||||||||||
|
1869 . . . . |
dh |
± |
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
1870.. .. |
- |
= |
+ |
= |
+ |
. |
— |
= |
|||||||||||||||||
|
1 1871 . . . . |
— |
- |
— |
— |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
] 1872 .... |
- |
± |
+ |
± |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
11873. . . . |
— |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
rb |
+ |
± |
||||||||||||||||
|
11874. . . . |
- |
= |
— |
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
1 1S75 .... |
± |
+ |
± |
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
11876.. .. |
= |
= |
± |
± |
+ |
+ |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
11877. . . . |
— |
— |
— |
- |
— |
||||||||||||||||||||
|
11878. . . . |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
= |
— |
- |
= |
- |
||||||||||||||||
|
11879. . . . |
+ |
+ |
— |
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
11880. . . . |
— |
+ |
+ |
= |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
11881 .... |
V |
- |
db |
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
11882 .... |
- |
+ |
+ |
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
11883 .... |
— |
+ |
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
11884 .... |
= |
= |
— |
± |
+ |
+ |
> |
||||||||||||||||||
|
11885 .... |
db |
= |
= |
1 |
TABLE A {Cent.)
Sales Prices
|
Lynx |
Red fox |
Silver fox |
Marten |
Mink |
Fisher |
Land otter |
Muskrat |
Wolverine |
Wolf |
Skunk |
Lynx |
Red fox |
Silver fox |
Marten |
Mink |
Fisher |
Land otter |
Muskrat |
Wolverine |
Wolf |
Skunk |
Raccoon |
|||
|
1886. . . . |
+ |
- |
+ |
+ |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
1887 .... |
- |
= |
± |
± |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
1888 .... |
± |
+ |
+ |
± |
+ |
— |
- |
= |
— |
± |
|||||||||||||||
|
1889. . . . |
= |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
||||||||||||||||||||
|
1890. . . . |
+ |
— |
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
1891 .... |
= |
— |
— |
= |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
1892 .... |
- |
- |
+ |
- |
+ |
||||||||||||||||||||
|
1893 .... |
+ |
+ |
± |
+ |
± |
||||||||||||||||||||
|
1894 .... |
- |
± |
— |
— |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
1895 .... |
- |
- |
- |
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
1896 .... |
= |
+ |
+ |
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
1897 .... |
+ |
± |
+ |
— |
± |
= |
= |
— |
+ |
- |
— |
= |
= |
||||||||||||
|
1898. . . . |
± |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
= |
— |
||||||||||||||||||
|
1899 .... |
- |
+ |
— |
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
1600 .... |
± |
+ |
± |
+ |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
1901 .... |
- |
- |
- |
- |
— |
- |
— |
||||||||||||||||||
|
1902 .... |
= |
± |
± |
+ |
= |
± |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
1903.. .. |
+ |
+ |
= |
± |
± |
+ |
+ |
± |
+ |
||||||||||||||||
|
1904. . .. |
- |
- |
— |
— |
— |
= |
— |
||||||||||||||||||
|
1905 .... |
- |
= |
= |
= |
- |
— |
+ |
||||||||||||||||||
|
1906.. .. |
± |
— |
— |
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
1907. . . . |
± |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
db |
— |
+ |
|||||||||||||||||
|
1908. . . . |
+ |
= |
+ |
+ |
— |
— |
— |
— |
|||||||||||||||||
|
1909. . . . |
- |
= |
± |
± |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
1910. . . . |
- |
= |
= |
± |
± |
± |
± |
± |
± |
||||||||||||||||
|
1911 . . . . |
* |
= |
+ |
— |
= |
=h |
— |
- |
— |
+ High points of sales and prices. dfcHighest points of sales and prices. —Low points of sales and prices. •“Lowest points of sales and prices.
The Prices of Furs
47
sent a monopoly condition controlled by the Hudson’s Bay Company. The close relation between prices and supply throughout the period illustrates Canada’s importance as a producer of these furs. Since the furs under consideration are primarily fine furs dependent for production on a north temperate climate, and on large unsettled areas, Canada has found herself in an unusually fortunate position.
On the other hand, new problems have arisen. Rising prices have been responsible for an increase in competition in the fur-trade, for an increase in trapping, and for de¬ struction of the animals concerned. These problems were seriously enhanced during the unusually high prices of the war period. Larger numbers of competitors and trappers became interested in furs, with far-reaching results. On the whole, a period of rising prices has been responsible for increased attention to fur-farming, to new regulations for the conservation of fur- bearing animals, and to greater attention to the fur industry. The period of uncertainty existing at the present time has been partly a result. The period was responsible for a hastening of the spread of western civilization among more primitive tribes. The problems arising there¬ from have occasioned new regulations for the protection of the Indians.
Undoubtedly fur prices have risen, but the rise attributed to the whole period is most characteristic of the period after 1900, and in reference to the most expensive furs.
✓
III. THE PRODUCTION OF FURS §1. Conservation
The rise in world prices and the increasing demand for fine furs has led to the wholesale destruction of important fur-bearing animals. In all countries this tendency has led to regulations directed to the conservation of these animals, and has become especially noticeable since 1900. It is proposed to give considerable attention to the extent and character of these regulations in Canada,1 as a basis for an appreciation of general world tendencies.
Governmental regulation of the production of furs has certain inherent difficulties. Furs are obtained over wide areas. They are unusually light and valuable. The animals may be caught, and the furs transported over long distances, without detection by the authorities. Animals which need - protection are scarce, their furs are valuable, and they may *:,*’be caught easily. A constant temptation exists to violate regulations prohibiting capture. Moreover, protection ' renders the furs more valuable, increases prices, and pro¬ vokes a situation in which the temptation toward violation is more conspicuous, and the necessity for rigid protection more urgent. Protection has developed under conditions in which improved transportation facilities have made its enforcement more difficult, and in which improved methods of trapping and higher prices have made enforcement in¬ creasingly necessary.
The growth of regulative machinery has been dependent on the development of administrative bodies in general.
‘Mr. H. E. Dougall, in a study on “Government regulation of the fur-trade”, has discussed the Canadian situation in considerable detail. The facts presented herewith art based largely on his material. The work which he has done is available on application to the Department of University Extension, University of Toronto.
Conservation
49
During the period of company control enforcement of regula¬ tions restricting production was carried out with greater effectiveness. But even with effective monopoly control considerable evidence exists to show the difficulties of limiting production. Indian trappers were spread over wide areas <r~ in no immediate contact with the posts, and regulations were enforced with difficulty. Price adjustments were in part effective in concentrating the attention of trappers on certain animals. Refusal to purchase furs meant not restriction of production, but the use of these furs by the Indians for clothing. Evidence also shows that the company found it difficult to enforce its regulations on production because of the lassitude of the post managers. This was shown as clearly in the English period as in the French regime.
With the increase in settlement, and the development of transportation facilities, monopoly control of production became increasingly difficult, and began to break down.
This was especially the case after the creation of the Dominion of Canada, with its federal structure, in 1867. No mention is made of the fur-trade in the British North America Act, and it has fallen to the separate provinces to design regula¬ tions. Regulations which had previously been enforced over a vast area by a central authority were now divided among the newly created provinces. In the older provinces of Ontario and Quebec, and in the maritime provinces, settle¬ ment had begun much earlier, and regulations of the fur- trade had naturally been worked out and elaborated at an
early period. .
Regulation followed the sweep of economic development
and settlement. The necessity of protection began at a much earlier date. Protection was essential for animals which were easily caught, which produced valuable fur, which increased slowly, and consequently tended to disappear. n New Brunswick beaver were first fully protected, with a fine of $20 to $50 for any infringement, for two years after March 20, 1897. This provision was extended for another two years in 1899, and for various intervals thereafter until
50
The Fur-Trade of Canada
1913. In that year permission was given for the trapping of a limited number of beaver, and a royalty of $2.00 was charged on each skin. After July 1, 1916, prohibition was continued at various intervals, and trapping of beaver is at present prohibited to November 1, 1927. In Nova Scotia, with consolidation of the game laws in 1896, beaver was protected to 1900. Open season was permitted after that year in the period from November to March. In 1903 full protection was granted, with a penalty of $100 for violation. In 1905 otter was given full protection until 1910, but the Act was repealed in 1906. In 1909 marten was given full protection.
Quebec has found it necessary .to adopt similar measures. In 1899 the province was divided into two zones, (l)all the province, excluding the counties of Chicoutimi and Saguenay to the east and north of the Saguenay river; (2) parts of the counties not in zone 1. This arrangement permitted special protection in Chicoutimi and Saguenay. In zone 1 full protection was given to beaver until 1902. In 1906 protection was extended until 1912. Beaver have since been trapped for the benefit of the Crown in cases where their activities became destructive to property. Protection also has been given for the black bear. The zone system has been an interesting example of a method by which allowance could be made for climatic differences which exist in a large area. In Ontario beaver and otter were protected from 1898 to 1900. Beaver protection was later extended to 1905 and to 1910 and 1916. In 1911 permission could be granted for the destruction of beaver in cases where they were the cause of considerable damage.
Manitoba prohibited the trapping of beaver in 1898, and included otter in 1900. This provision was relaxed in 1913. In Saskatchewan regulations were enacted in 1905 prohibiting the trapping of beaver until 1915. In 1912 the regulation was extended to 1920. This was modified in 1916 by per¬ mission to trap beaver north of the Churchill River. At present protection exists for beaver in townships numbered 1 to 52 until 1930; and north of township 52 the usual close
Conservation
51
season, May 1 to November 1, is in force. Alberta gave * protection to beaver from 1907 to 1912, but in 1909 protection of beaver was suspended within territories and under con¬ ditions determined by the government. In 1915 beaver were protected to 1920, and later to 1925. British Columbia has <r made little progress in the full protection of fur-bearing animals.
In most of the provinces definite attempts have been made to increase the supply of certain animals, especially beaver and otter, by full protection over a fixed period. This form of protection has been supplemented by legislation regarding the season in which animals may be caught, methods of capture, and other related devices. The aim of the protection has been primarily to increase the supply of furs, but also to prevent waste through trapping unprime
An important step in the conservation of animal life has been the adoption on the part of all the provinces, at different periods, of regulations prohibiting the use of poison. The effect of poison1 on the skins of the animals, but more par¬ ticularly the far reaching destruction of animal life, because of its spread to animals other than those directly caught, has been responsible for the universal condemnation of its
use.
Other regulations have been adopted by various provinces directed to the same ends. In Ed nce_Edward Island the Fish and Game Protection Act of 1906 laid down close seasons for marten and otter from April 1 to November 1, with penalties for violation of $1.00 to $25.00. In 1897 New Brunswick fixed a close season for mink, fisher, and sable (marten) from May 1 to September 1, with a penalty of $5.00 to $20.00 fine, or five to twenty days in jail for violation. The close season for muskrat in the counties of King and Sunbuty was fixed at June 10 to March 10 of the following year, with a penalty of $5.00 for each violation. These
iSee a paper by R. T. Congdon of Dawson, given before the first annual meeting of the Commission of Conservation, 1910.
52
The Fur-Trade of Canada
regulations have been improved, and the close season for mink, otter, fisher, and sable lengthened from March 31 to November 1; the close season for foxes is from March 1 to October 1, for muskrat from May 1 to March 25 in the counties of Westmoreland, Albert, St. Johns, Kings, Sunbury, York, and Charlotte, and from May 25 to March 25 in Kent, Northumberland, Gloucester, Restigouche, Madawaska, Victor, and Carleton. Shooting of muskrat is prohibited. In Nova Scotia (1896) close season was fixed for mink from March 1 to November 1. In 1909 regulations prohibited the destruction of, or the setting of traps near, muskrat houses. In 1913 it became illegal to take fur-bearing animals from their burrows or dens by smoking or digging them out.
In Quebec similar measures have been followed. Close seasons were fixed in zone 1 for mink, otter, martefrr-fox, afld raccoon, from April 1 to November 1. Close seasons were also given for muskrat and bear. In 1906 in zone 1 muskrat was given a close season only in April. As early as 1868 Ontario introduced legislation with close seasons for beaver, muskrat, mink, sable, otter, and fisher from May 1 to November 1, with a fine of $2.00 to $25.00 for each skin. In 1897 muskrat were protected in April, and the destruction of muskrat houses forbidden. The extension of the Ontario boundary has been responsible for new provisions. In 1924 regulations were made prohibiting trapping of beaver and otter in the territory “lying south of the French River, Lake Nipissing, and the Mattawa River and in such territories south of a line due east and west thereof until January 1, 1926”. A close season was fixed in all other parts of the province from March 31 to December 15. In Manitoba a similar problem has arisen. In 1915 longer open seasons were provided for the capture of marten, fox, lynx, and muskrat north of the 53rd parallel of latitude than south of that line.
The prairie provinces have not deviated materially from the general lines of legislation of the other provinces. Mani¬ toba has a close season for muskrat, although this regulation
Conservation
53
f
may be overridden by municipal by-laws in cases of de¬ struction by those animals. In 1905 Saskatchewan fixed close seasons for minkv fisher, marten, otter, and muskrat.
In 1907 Alberta fixed a close season for the same animals.
In 1911 it became illegal to molest the houses of muskrats and the houses and dams of beavers in trapping. In 1915 foxes were placed on the close season list. Muskrat are at present fully protected south of the north Saskatchewan, and have a close season to the north. North of the 55th parallel the season has been thrown open for beaver from time to time as the situation demanded. In 1918 permits1 expiring May 1 yearly were granted on payment of $1.00 to trappers south of the fifty-fifth parallel. The furs were sold to the government, and 75 per cent, of the proceeds returned to the ..trapper.
, Close seasofis are fixed for bear, otter, and marten in British Columbia by order-in-council from year to year.
This arrangement permits greater elasticity in regulations than is the rule in other provinces. It is illegal to destroy beaver or muskrat houses. Similar elasticity of regulations prevails in the northwest Territories through the supervision of the Territorial Council. In the Yukon Territory longer open seasons are given for beaver, otter, lynx, marten, mink, muskrat, and fox, north of the Arctic circle than to the south.
In the Northwest Territories close seasons were fixed in 1885 for mink, fisher, marten, otter, beaver, and muskrat. j In 1894 similar legislation was enacted and extended.2
The development of machinery for the enforcement of regulations has necessarily been slow and uncertain. An important part of the machinery has been the establishment of devices of control over trappers and traders to prevent illegal trapping and the trading of furs secured illegally.
In Prince Edward Island residents are required to pay a licence fee of $15.00 and non-residents of $20.00. In New
1
1Report of the National Commission of Conservation, 1918.
2See Regulations for the Protection of Game in the Northwest Territories for a full statement of present legislation.
54
The Fur-Trade of Canada
Brunswick the regulations for 1897 prohibited the buying and selling of the pelts of protected animals during the close season, although these regulations were altered to allow game wardens to issue written permits for the sale of pelts within ten days after the close season began. The alteration allowed the trapper to carry on his work to the last day of the open season. Later regulations increased the effectiveness of these provisions in providing heavier penalties for the possession or sale of green pelts of protected animals during the close season. In 1909 licences were issued to trade and dress furs for $25.00 to non-residents and $2.00 to residents. Non¬ resident trappers were required to pay $25.00 for a licence. Traders were required to keep records of the date of purchase and of the name and residence of the seller of each skin. Heavy penalties were imposed for each default. Under existing regulations bona fide residents pay $10.00 to trap or trade in furs, and non-residents $50.00. All raw furs are stamped by an officer of the Department of Lands and Mines. Royalties must be paid on furs before permission is given to export from the province. Nova Scotia in 1896 required non-residents to pay $30.00 for a 'trapper’s licence, although non-residents paying over $20.00 taxes on property owned in the province were exempted. Penalties of $50.00 to $100.00 were attached to a violation of these arrangements. In 1902 the licence fee was raised to $40.00; at present it is $50.00. In 1907 the export of furs was prohibited. To prevent smuggling to other provinces, and the New England States, exports of furs by licence-holders were permitted in 1909, with a written permit from the warden. Accurate informa¬ tion is gained through rigid inspection by the warden. At present it is illegal to trade green pelts of beaver, fisher, or marten. The sale of other pelts cannot be carried on after three days from the. expiration of the open period. Fur- buyers’ licences are issued to non-residents for $100.00 and to residents for $25.00. Monthly reports are sent by holders , of licences on the number and character of purchases and \ sales. Royalties are paid on skins exported, tanned and
Ho o>i -
^7 UJj <J • Conservation
55
dressed, or sold to non-residents — red fox 75c, otter $1.00, cross fox $1.50, silver fox $2.00, mink 40c, raccoon 20c, skunk 15c, muskrat 5c, weasel 3c.
Quebec, has developed similar regulations. Skins of protected animals may be sold during the first few days of the close season. Licences are issued to trappers. In 1906 each trader in furs was required to send a return of the number and species of furs taken, bought, and sold in the province. Fines for violation of this regulation were made increasingly severe, and in 1910 the penalty was $100 for each offense. In 1906 royalties were charged on each skin similar to those charged in Nova Scotia. In 1916 fur traders’ permits were issued on payment of $10.00. At present non¬ resident traders’ licence fees are $100.00 and resident traders’ $25.00. Detailed rules and heavy penalties have been worked out to provide adequate control of the trade. Tanners and dressers are required to report whether skins received have been stamped by the government. Beginning in 1917, the j government had successfully brought the fur- trade under v control in its requirements as to the payment of royalties and the stamping of furs. During the first year of operation the government collected royalties on $1,500,000 — a partial indication of its effectiveness. Ontario adopted the licence system in 1908. Non-residents were required to pay $10.00 to trap. The system was rapidly extended, and in 1914 every person engaged in the fur-trade was required to pur¬ chase a licence. Resident trappers’ licence fees were $5.00.
In 1924 special licences were necessary to take beaver and otter. Tanners and dressers operate under a licence ($10.00), and are required to make monthly returns on skins purchased. Royalties are charged — bear 60c, fisher $1.50, cross fox $1.50, red fox 75c, black fox $10.00, white fox $1.50, lynx 50c, marten $1.00, mink 25, muskrat 5c, raccoon 10c, skunk 10c, ermine 5c, wolverine 40c, beaver $1.00, otter $2.00. Heavy fur-dealers’ licence fees have taken on a protectionist char¬ acter for Ontario industry. Resident British subjects pay $25.00 “store licence”, resident British subjects, with no
56
The Fur-Trade of Canada
particular place of business, “travelling for buyers , $100,
and non-residents $200. _ f
As early as 1890 in Manitoba non-resident trappers licence fees were $25.00*^ilcFirl 1890 $50. In 1902 exportation of pelts was limited to licence-holders. In 1913 the licence system was extended, resident trappers paying 50c, non¬ resident trappers who were British subjects $25.00, and foreigners $100. Non-residents were permitted to trade with the Indians on payment of $50. Reports were required as usual on the number of skins handled. At present trappers’ licence fees are, for resident British subjects, $2.00, for non¬ resident British subjects, $50.00, -for resident aliens, $2.00, for non-resident aliens, $200; traders’ licence fees are, for the raw fur merchant, $10.00, for the travelling agent, $10.00, for the travelling fur buyer, $25.00. Royalties are paid on skins, and fines of $100.00 to $500.00 are imposed for violation of this regulation. Saskatchewan also extended its licence system in 1913. Fur-dealers’ licence fees were $10.00, and resident trappers’ $25.00. Dealers were required to make detailed reports on furs traded. In 1916 legislation required shipments of furs to bear an official tag supplied with each licence, and railway companies were forbidden to accept shipments not properly marked. At present resident trappers’ licence fees are $2.00, non-resident fees $25.00, fees for resi¬ dent fur-dealers $10.00, for non-resident $50.00, for travelling dealers resident $50.00, for non-resident $100.00, for fur- dealers’ agents, resident, first permit $50.00, additional permits $10.00 each, for non-resident $100.00, for wholesale fur-dealers’ licence $100.00, for tanners and dressers $10.00. Elaborate reports are required from trappers, traders, tanners, and dressers, on the skins handled. Royalties are charged at the rate of five per cent, on the average market value of each skin. Heavy penalties are attached to violation. Alberta in 1907 charged a licence fee for non-resident trappers of $10.00, and for trappers’ guides of $5.00. At present resident trappers’ licence fees are $2.00, and non-resident $25.00. Royalties vary at different periods. British
Conservation
57
Columbia licence fees (resident) are $10.00. Non-residents are not permitted to trap. Licenced trappers occupying a trap line prior to November 14 are protected against other trappers. Resident traders’ licence fees are $25.00, non¬ resident traders $200.00. A limited system of royalty pay¬ ments is provided. Furs may be exported only during the open season and two months thereafter. Provision is made for adequate reports on the number of furs caught and handled. Yukon territory non-resident trappers’ fees are $100.00. Residents do not require licences. Resident fur- buyers’ fees are $25.00, non-resident fees $150.00. Furs are exported under permit on payment of an export tax. The Northwest Territories’ regulations for 1893 required a licence fee of $5.00 from non-residents. At present bona fide residents of the territory pay trappers’ licence fees of $2.00, non-resident British subjects $75.00, and aliens $150.00; bona fide resident traders pay a fee of $5.00, non-resident British subjects $150.00, aliens $300.00. Residence refers to British subjects who have lived four years in the Northwest
Territories.
The collection of fees has been necessary not only as a j means of control, but to offset the increasing cost of effective regulation. Each province has developed its own adminis¬ trative machinery. In Prince Edward Island enforcement of regulations is placed in the hands of regularly appointed game guardians, as well as constables, police, and eve market clubs. A game inspector is appointed to supervise general enforcement, and has power to confiscate game, ; furs, and equipment on proof of illegality. New Brunswick in 1897 planned the appointment of a game warden for each county. Each game warden appointed deputy game wardens subject to the approval of the chief game commissioner. Each deputy was placed under a bond of $100.00 or more to ensure a faithful performance of duty. Fishery commis¬ sioners and deputy Crown lands agents were appointed special game wardens, and a chief game commissioner was appointed to supervise and instruct the wardens in the
58
The Fur-Trade of Canada
discharge of the regulations. All officers were given special powers in seizing green hides and pelts of animals taken illegally. Prosecutors were given one-half the fine except in the case of wardens or deputy wardens, who received all the fines. Rewards up to $100.00 could be offered from time to time for apprehension of offenders. In 1898 market clerks were made game wardens ex officio, and powers were given to game wardens enabling them to search premises and buildings. In 1899 wardens were authorized to seize and confiscate to the Crown any green pelt found during the close season. In 1905 wardens and deputy wardens were required to pass an examination in wood-craft, natural history, and other subjects regarded as essential in efficiency. A chief ranger was also appointed to ensure better enforce¬ ment. In 1913 one chief ranger was appointed to supervise the work of all wardens. More recently protection of fur¬ bearing animals has been combined with forestry work under the direction of the provincial forester. The duties of forest ranger and game warden have been combined, and the number of ex officio game wardens greatly increased. The general tendency has favoured the appointment of specially qualified game wardens rather than the patronage system. Nova Scotia appointed a chief game commissioner in 1896 to supervise and instruct district commissioners. Arrange¬ ments were made with the Game and Inland Fishery Pro¬ tection Society for the appointment of persons authorized to sell licences and to act as agents in enforcement. The Society was allotted 80 per cent, of the licence fees to enable it to carry on the work of regulation. In 1898 power was given to officers and agents of the Society, as well as to game commissioners and constables, to search for pelts illegally taken. In 1908 game inspectors were appointed, and registered guides and forest rangers given the powers of game wardens.
Quebec in 1899 appointed a game superintendent-general and game inspector-general to enforce regulations. These were given the powers of game wardens, and were ex officio
Conservation
59
justices of the peace. Game-keepers were appointed, and all Crown land agents, timber agents, and wood-rangers, were ex officio game wardens. Since the creation of the Department of Game and Fisheries, Ontario has a deputy minister, superintendent, inspectors (not exceeding three), wardens, and overseers wfio have the authority of constables. During the earlier period, and under the Act of 1868, fines were shared equally between the informer and the munici¬ pality in which conviction of illegality was made. In 1877 all the fine was paid to the prosecutor. In 1897 a Board of Fish and Game Commissioners was appointed as a step towards more efficient regulation. In 1900 this Board appointed deputy wardens with the power of search warrant. Sheriffs, provincial police, wood rangers, Crown lands and timber agents, were appointed deputy wardens. In 1907 the Board was abolished and the Game and Fisheries Branch of the Mines Department established. This branch was placed under the direction of a superintendent and three inspectors to oversee the work of the game wardens.
In the prairie provinces game laws are administered under the Departments of Agriculture, and the regulations are enforced by provincial, local, and special game guardians. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police are ex officio game wardens. More recently each province has undertaken the task of organizing its own police. Manitoba in 1890 appointed game guardians, and empowered policemen, constables, and game guardians to search for furs procured illegally. Saskat¬ chewan in 1905 provided for the appointment of a chief game guardian and district game guardians through the minister of Agriculture. The Royal North West Mounted Police were made ex officio game guardians. Guardians were given power to search during the close season and to con¬ fiscate furs taken illegally. Alberta adopted similar regula¬ tions in 1906. Proceeds of furs confiscated (up to $25.00) were given to the game guardian. The chief game com¬ missioner has become an important official in both provinces. British Columbia has a provincial game warden who appoints
60
The Fur-Trade of Canada
special game wardens for limited periods. Regular wardens are occupied primarily in protecting game. . In 1918 a provincial game conservation board was appointed to ad- minister game regulations. The chief of provincial police
was made chief game warden.
In the Northwest Territories legislation is administered by the minister of the Interior and the commissioner of Dominion Parks. The Yukon game ordinance is an exception, and is administered under the jurisdiction of the commissioner of the Yukon. Regulations are enforced by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, who are ex officio game wardens. In the Yukon Territories other' game wardens are also appointed. Since 1915 regulations in the Northwest Terri¬ tories have been worked out by the Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch of the Department of the Interior. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police is the body of greatest importance in the enforcement of regulations.
It is impossible in a short sketch of this character to indicate fully the various changes in regulation which have taken place since Confederation. It has been possible only 1 to outline the general trend of regulations.1 Important indirect legislation in the interests of increased fur production has not been considered, although all game laws protecting wild life are in some sense related to the problem of fur ; production. Protection of forests against fires is important to the production of furs. In general these laws have followed the tendencies already described. Close seasons are most important methods of protection. The establishment of reserves and parks in which trapping and hunting are for¬ bidden is a significant measure in the conservation of wild life. Quebec has followed a policy of leasing Crown lands as
Tor existing regulations it is necessary to keep in touch with the authorities concerned. A list of these authorities and their addresses in the various provinces and states may be found in R. G. Hodgson, Raising Beaver for Profit (Oshawa, 1924), pp. 22-6. A summary of the laws of states and provinces for 1919 may be found in A. Laut, The Fur Trade of America (New York, 1921), pp. 156-186. Unfortunately all summaries rapidly become out of date. Petersen's Fur- Traders’ Lexicon, pp. 65-78, gives a similar digest.
Conservation
61
reserves to individuals and fish and game clubs. The lessees are required to maintain guardians for the enforcement of regulations as an essential part of the agreement. Nearly five hundred leases involving an area of about ten thousand square miles have been issued in this manner. Various provinces have followed a policy of granting bounties on more destructive animals. New Brunswick in 1898 paid a bounty of $5.00 for every wolf, and 50c for every wild cat or lynx. These bounties were increased in 1899. Other provinces have paid varying bounties on destructive animals at various times — the practice having developed at an early period.
The policy of the Dominion government as contrasted with the provinces has been shown in the Northwest Terri¬ tories. Reserves and parks have been set apart in various parts of Canada which have served as breeding grounds for animal life. The Wild Life Advisory Board is a recent organization, including among its members representatives from various departments of the Dominion government interested in the protection of wild life. The organization has been instrumental in fostering legislation directed to that end. Large numbers of unofficial organizations, naturalists’ clubs, fish and game associations, and the like, contribute in a very direct way to the enforcement of legislation.
The effectiveness of these regulations cannot be directly estimated. It is generally admitted and is regarded as . #
inevitable that the existence of separate governments with y ^
different regulations and the proximity of a large consumer of furs to the south render enforcement difficult. Long boundary lines between the provinces and between Canada and the United States are factors militating against effective regulation. Trapping is carried on over wide areas, and the trapper has no communication with the outside world during a large part of the year. Large numbers of trappers are ^ — Indians and half-breeds, who are not thoroughly cognizant of regulations. Changes in regulations lead to confusion and are difficult to enforce. Indians are. commonly under the
g2 The Fur-Trade of Canada
separate jurisdiction of the Indian Department of the Dominion government, and are brought under the regulations of separate government with considerable difficulty. An efficient personnel for the administration of unusually difficult regulations is the result of a long period of continuous teach¬ ing. The expense involved has in many cases made this
state of efficiency impossible. .
Certain provinces have found definite problems depending largely on peculiarities of geographic background,, economic development, and the character of the population. The small area of Prince Edward Island and the scarcity of fur¬ bearing animals has been responsible for considerable laxity in administration. New Brunswick, during the earlier period, found difficulty in appointing efficient game wardens. The practice of granting fines to the officers discovering violations produced a state of mutual distrust rather than the co¬ operation essential to regulation. The minuteness of the regulations to which traders and trappers were expected to conform produced, in some instances, effects opposite to those intended. Illegal trapping and smuggling of furs were by no means completely checked. Nova Scotia, in spite of stringent regulations, has also found it impossible to check smuggling and illegal trapping. The payment of royalties of taxes on furs is usually shifted to the trapper, and operates as a direct incentive to smuggle furs to areas in which no royalties are charged as to the United States and Quebec. Nova Scotia has suffered also from frequent trifling changes of the seasons which led to confusion. Returns to the authorities are always subject to falsification. Similar tendencies have been noted in Ontario and Quebec. The latter province has found it difficult to control shipments of furs to such neighbouring territories as Ontario and New Brunswick and New York State. Furs are sent beyond the interprovincial boundary, and reshipped to large fur houses at Montreal and Quebec. In most cases it is impossible for the Quebec government to verify the point of origin of the furs. Lack of uniformity between the regulations and laws
Conservation
63
of neighbouring provinces is a serious handicap to enforce¬ ment. In Ontario various complaints have been in evidence. High licence fees for fqreigners have been regarded as a protective measure keeping out foreign competition, and enabling Ontario buyers to gain a monopoly of the trade. It has been claimed that regulations prohibiting the trapping of beaver until December 15 are impossible to enforce. Trappers1 going into the bush in October and November cannot be controlled. Lack of uniformity with the laws of Quebec is a handicap to Ontario as well as Quebec.
The prairie provinces and British Columbia suffer even more seriously from "lack of uniformity of laws. e Furs may be sent by the rivers' from one province to another without fear of detection. Large numbers of trappers are Indians and half-breeds. The Staff of gnardians is generally regarded, as inadequate in numbers for enforcement. High licence fees have proved a stimulus to smuggling. Provinces with lower fees and royalties benefit through an increase in trade. The Northwest Territories have developed recent problems with the policy of restricting trapping and trading through high licence fees and the creation of reserves. Complaints are made by residents of the Northwest Territories that their children, by attending school in Alberta, have lost the rights of residents. It is claimed that the larger companies are given special privileges as against individual traders. Charge and counter charge are made to the effect that returns forwarded to the government are incomplete. Re¬ serves are held responsible for increased competition among trappers and for greater destruction of fur-bearing animals. Large areas cannot possibly be adequately patrolled to prevent poaching. Trappers tend to concentrate near the reserves, and competition is increased. Trappers forced out of the Territories by high licence fees trap in Alberta, and deplete the fur resources of that province. Again lack of uniform regulations during a period of high prices, such as during the war, was held responsible for the development of a
1 Mail and Empire, Toronto, December 15, 1924.
64
The Fur-Trade of Canada
lucrative smuggling business. Altogether conditions in the Northwest Territories cannot be regarded as satisfactory from the standpoint of regulation.
In spite of numerous difficulties in the enforcement of regulations, evidences of a drift toward improvement are in sight. Neighbouring provinces of Quebec co-operate in law enforcement by returning furs which are sent from Quebec without a stamp. The state of New York also co-operates in a similar way. In Alberta a rule was laid down in 1924 providing that close seasons could be imposed by order-in- f council on agreement with the government of any province. Indications are becoming more 'evident that co-operation between various provinces in uniform regulations and in enforcement will become the rule. Conferences are becoming the rule between officials of various governments.
The situation in the United States may serve as an illustration of general tendencies. The Biological Survey of the United States is a federal organization with agents and wardens in every state to direct the enactment and enforce¬ ment of legislation. The game departments of each state co-operate with the Biological Survey, and legislation is enacted in the interests of the conservation of fur resources. A Committee on Interstate Commerce in Game enforces federal laws dealing with trade. Restrictive legislation has been carried much farther in the United States than in Canada, especially in the full protection of animals in various states, and the length of the close seasons. The Lacey Act provides for penalties of violations of the laws of individual states, as shown in shipments between states of furs procured illegally. The Biological Survey Board checks the shipments and receipts of furs to the important fur houses of the country, and provides for prosecution of illegal shipments. The tendency has been toward closer central control and more effective regulation.
Undoubtedly regulation is the crucial aspect of fur pro¬ duction. Fur prices have increased rapidly. In new northern countries such as Canada settlement has spread, trapping
Conservation
Go
methods have become more effective, and the necessity for improved means of regulation and enforcement has increased. J/ The more valuable fur-bearing animals found in the north ' temperate climates have been found to an increasing extent in great danger. The problem of conserving and increasing the supply of these furs is the problem of regulation. There is no prospect of an increase of furs through the discovery of new areas, of new tribes of Indians, or of new species of fur- bearing animals. The consistent spread of settlement, and the opening up of new areas to agriculture, lumbering, and mining, constantly threaten existing supplies.
It would be utopian to attempt a sketch of the possibilities of regulation. Canada is in a singularly favourable position with vast areas open to the prosecution of the trade, with rising prices for fine furs of the north temperate areas, and with a constantly expanding market in close proximity. If a central authority with effective regulation machinery could be assumed, if adequate statistics could be gathered and investigations carried out as to the most effective way of increasing the number of fur-bearing animals, there can be no doubt but that the wealth of Canada in furs would be increased remarkably. The destruction of the organization which had been built up through centuries of experience in the fur-trade, in the abolition of the Hudson’s Bay Company monopoly, has not been repaired. It was possible for a large organization to conserve its fur resources not only with refer¬ ence to the fur-bearing animals, but also with reference to the highest possible returns. It has not been possible with' the relatively slow growth of regulation in separate provinces, UJ with regulations of one province offsetting and nullifying the / regulations of other provinces, with protective seasons ir> one aiea increasing the price and the possibilities of destruc- j tion in ot,her areas, to prevent the steady decline in many / important fur- bearing animals. The prospects of decline in the not distant future of other animals are relatively bright.
It is a platitude to say that the fur resources of Canada are extremely valuable. They may be-increased in quantity
66
The Fur-Trade of Canada
and in value through the promotion of well-directed, uniform, and constructive efforts. Canada is destined to become in the modern industrial economy increasingly a specialized area in the production of fur, by virtue of its geographic and climatic background, provided always that requisite measures are taken to ensure growth in this direction.
§2. Fur-Farming
The rise in the prices of furs, and especially of finer furs, which becomes conspicuous in tlie middle nineties and in the present century, has been responsible for the development of regulations designed to protect important fur-bearing animals. It has been no less responsible for the spectacular rise of artificial methods of production as shown in fur-farming.1 Indeed, the distinction between fur-farming and regulation is in many cases not clear. In 1846 the Hudson’s Bay Com¬ pany was successful in establishing a colony2 of beaver on Charlton Island. On the island of Anticosti, which is owned by M. Henri Menier, control is exercised over the number of animals taken from year to year. Companies interested in muskrats have leased large tracts of swamp and marsh land, adopted measures to prevent poaching, and taken a yearly harvest. The United States government, under a convention with Great Britain, Russia, and Japan, has assumed control of the fur seals on the Pribilof Islands. Blue fox ranches are established in connection with the seal rookery, and also on various uninhabited islands in the
JMr. R. W. Keast, in his study on “Fur-farming”, has concentrated his attention on various details and practices involved in raising specific animals. These practices are unfortunately changing constantly with the experimental nature of the subject, and treatments of this character go out of date rapidly. Mr. Keast has attempted, however, to bring the discussion down to the present day. Multigraphed copies of his study may be had on application to the Ex¬ tension Department. University of Toronto. See also J. A. Allen and W. C. S. McLure, Theory and Practice of Fox Ranching (Charlottetown, 1927).
2See an interesting proposal for the establishment of colonies of beaver in the Hudson Bay Territory, dated April 26, 1813, in Can. Arch., Selkirk papers, Vol. II, p. 605.
Fur-Farming
67
Behring Sea. In each of these cases it would be extremely difficult to state whether fur-farming or regulation was under discussion. For the purposes in hand a rigid definition is unnecessary. Regulation becomes effective in geographically restricted areas which are difficult of approach and easily guarded, as in the cases noted. Under these conditions production can be controlled to some extent through a supervised destruction of a limited number of animals and through supervised feeding. But fur-farming as ordinarily regarded involves more adequate control and a greater expenditure of capital.
Fur-farming has succeeded most conspicuously with animals which are extremely rare, and which have a high value because of the quality of the fur and the impossibility of imitation. Large numbers of animals during the past half-century have been regarded with increasing attention as fur-farming prospects because of increasing prices, diffi¬ culties of regulation, and increasing scarcity. The chinchilla w jj is an example in South America; but of especial importance 0 from the Canadian point of view has been the silver fox. .
It is proposed to review briefly the developments of the silver ^ fox industry to illustrate the general problems involved.
The value of the silver fox cannot be ascribed to an increasing scarcity. The supply* 1 of silver fox furs prior to yv rs/ the development of fur-farming varied closely with the supply f > ' ;
of red fox. Its increasing value was the result primarily of ^ the increase in demand. Significant experiments began in - •
Prince Edward Island in the latter part of the eighties of last century in keeping the red fox in captivity. Later, on the basis of these experiments, attempts were made to raise silver foxes in captivity. Mr. Dalton (now Sir Cnailes Dalton) began to purchase live black foxes from trappers
JChief Trader Bernard R. Ross estimated that the proportion of silver and black foxes caught in the Mackenzie district during the period 1848-1860 was about two-fifteenths; red fox, six-fifteenths; and cross fox seven-fifteent s. An estimate for White Whale River on the east coast of the Hudson Bay gives
1 cross fox for 10 red fox, 1 silver fox for 30 red-fox, and 1 wolf for 100 red fox.
63
The Fur-Trade of Canada
and others who had been unsuccessful in raising the young. Mr. Haywood had earlier attempted to raise silver foxes, but in all cases the mother had destroyed the pups. Further difficulties developed in getting the foxes to breed in captivity, apparently the result of sex inhibition. In 1883 Mr. Dalton purchased a pair of dark silver foxes which have been regarded as the foundation of the Prince Edward Island industry. Eventually Mr. Dalton and Mr. Oulton formed a partner¬ ship, and removed the foxes to Cherry Island, where they were kept in pens of wire netting. In 1894 Mr. Oulton, who directed the breeding end of the business, was successful in raising to maturity a litter of silver foxes. Others began to take a greater interest in Mr. Oulton’s success, and the firm of “Tuplin and Gordon” purchased a pair of foxes from him in 1890. Captain James Gordon has been credited with I the invention of satisfactory types of nests. Mr. Oulton’s 1 work became prominent in designing forms for pens. Mr. Silas Rayner contributed to the general development by success in breeding silver foxes from cross foxes and segregat¬ ing the silver strain. With success along these lines, fox¬ farming1 became of greater importance. In 1900 one of the silver fox pelts raised on the farms was sold for $1,800 at the London fur sales. The result tvas a rapid increase in the demand for silver foxes for breeding purposes from 1900 to 1905. After 1905 larger numbers of pelts were sold on the market. The demand for foxes for breeding purposes increased, but a general agreement between important owners prevented the sale of live animals for breeding purposes to outsiders until 1910. In the autumn of that year the mono¬ poly was broken and the sale of breeding stock began on a large scale. Prices increased rapidly from $3,000 for breeding pairs in 1910 to $20,000 in 1913. As a result large numbers
1See J. W. Jones, Fur Farming m Canada (Ottawa, 1914), pp. 15-19, for interesting details on early development. The semi-centennial edition of the Summerside Journal contains many interesting facts not recorded by Mr. Jones. In some instances the two accounts differ materially. See Canadian National Record for Foxes, Vol. I (Ottawa, 1922), pp. xxv-xxxiii.
Fur- Farming
69
of corporations' were formed to finance the purchases, and a period of intense speculation followed. The first public corporation was formed in the United States in 1911. With the rapid decline in fur prices following the war and the disruption of the European market, large numbers of these newly-formed corporations disappeared. The development of the American market and the rise in prices of the post-war period have placed the industry on a sounder basis.
The industry developed concurrently in other provinces of Canada and in the United States. Contributions1 2 have been made by many pioneers and various organizations, and publications have come into existence to foster the industry. In 1913 the Silver Fox Breeders’ Association of Prince Edward Island was organized to conserve the interest of breeders and to protect purchasers against fraud by the establishment of a system of registration. In 1920 the Department of Agri¬ culture of the Dominion granted a charter to the Canadian Silver Fox Breeders’ Association3. Pedigrees of ranch-bred silver foxes are issued after inspection by an officer of the Live Stock department. Records are kept at the head office
1For a list of fur-farming companies with their places of business and capita' - ization, and of fur-farmers in various provinces, existing in 1914, see J. W. Jones’ op. cit., App. XI, pp. 222-251. The annual fur-farm reports include the names of fur-farmers and their addresses arranged alphabetically by counties.
2Mr. Jones attributes the early difficulties of fox-farming to the following facts: (1) No good fencing material, such as woven wire, was available. (2) Warm, dry quarters for young litters were not provided, the necessity of having a small well-insulated nest which would be sufficiently warmed by the mother’s body not being realized. (3) The monogamous nature of foxes was not recognized, and being quartered in one pen in large numbers the young were killed. (4) The price of fur was not high enough to induce breeders to risk large amounts of capital in experiment, and those who had the aptitude for the business usually possessed little capital. See J. W. Jones, op. cit., p. 18.
3See Canadian National Record for Foxes (Ottawa, 1922) for a copy of the constitution and amendments; also for a list of pedigreed animals. The Associa¬ tion has not been regarded with favour by all fox-breeders. Farmers in the Yukon Territory and elsewhere have found it impossible to conform to the regulations. Men engaged in building up a ranch from wild stock are not in a position to subscribe to the rules of the Association without considerable financial loss. Recent legislation in Ontario is evidence of similar dissatisfaction.
70
The Fur-Trade of Canada
of the Association in Summerside. Registered foxes are marked by tattoos of letters and numbers on the ears, and the purchaser is protected against fraud. Fox researcn stations have been established in Prince Edward Island and Quebec, and research work is being carried out on dietary and pathological problems. During the 1926 session of the legislature, the province of Ontario voted supplies for the establishment of an experimental farm for the raising of fur animals. Legislation has been enacted in ah provinces1 providing for reports from owners of live fur-bearing animals, and also for the regulation of shipments and other details, including permits for capture of live animals.
The present state of silver fox-farming in Canada is shown in the Annual Report on Fur Farms for 1924. The total number of fur farms in operation in Canada in 1924 was 1,551, of which 1,466 were fox farms, an increase in the latter of 287 over 1923. Of this total Prince Edward Island had 458, an increase of 10; Ontario had 291, an increase of SO; Quebec had 277, an increase of 29; Nova Scotia had 152, an increase of 29; and New Brunswick had 106, an increase of 17. With respect to total value of property, Prince Edward Island possessed 36 per cent., Ontario 16 per cent., Quebec 12 per cent., New Brunswick 9 per cent., and Nova Scotia 6 per cent. The difficulties involved in statistics regarding the value of property forbid an extended analysis. Prince Edward Island and Ontario are the more important provinces. A comparison between these provinces should give interesting results. The total number of silver foxes born in 1924 was 23,476, an increase of 4,176. The number of deaths of the young in 1924 was 2,905, an increase of 264,
XA copy of “An Act to impose a tax upon foxes held in captivity in this province. 3 Geo. V. c. 5, 1913, P.E.I.’’, may be found in J. W. Jones, op. cit., App. VII. Excerpts from legislation in other provinces are also included, pp. 164- 181. Present regulations may be obtained from the authorities of various provinces.. The statistical information obtained from reports is included in the Annual Report on the Fur Farms of Canada, issued by the Dominion Bureau of Statistics.
Fur- Farming
71
of adults, 986, an increase of 107. The number of animals killed for pelts (young) was 3,180, a decrease of 1,408, adults, 3,324, a decrease of 401. In 1924 the number of deaths of the young was practically as great as the number of young killed for pelts. The number of deaths of adults was about one-third the number killed for pelts. The high death rate, especially of the young, is significant of the difficulties of the industry. In Prince Edward Island the percentage of deaths of the young to the number of animals born was 8.7 per cent., in New Brunswick, 10.2 per cent., in Quebec, 16.5 per cent., in Nova Scotia, 18.9 per cent., in Ontario, 25.1 per cent. The contrast between Ontario and Prince Edward Island is striking.
Undoubtedly the experience which fur-farmers of Prince Edward Island have had in raising foxes has been an im¬ portant factor in determining the relatively low death rate. On the other hand, the tendencies shown in the fox farms of Prince Edward Island should have considerable significance. On the whole, the farms of this province were larger than the farms of Ontario. The average value of the land and build¬ ings for 1924 on a fox farm in Prince Edward Island was $1,728, and in Ontario, $1,362. The average number o pens per farm in Prince Edward Island was 18, and in Ontario, 10.5. The number of foxes on each farm in Prince Edward Island is compared with the number in Ontario in the following table.
u>r?
ok
&
Va-
I
1/
|
Percentage of farms having at the end of the year 1914 |
P.E.I. |
Ontario |
|
Less than 5 foxes . |
. . . 18.3 |
30.2 |
|
5 to 9 foxes . |
. . . 20.9 |
26 1 |
|
10 to 19 foxes . |
, . . . 20.7 |
22.6 |
|
20 to 29 foxes . |
, . .. 11.5 |
10.9 |
|
30 or over . . |
, ... 28.3 |
9.9 |
A Pi U*
* O 'u 0
piT'
The largest percentage (30.2) of farms in Ontario have less than 5 foxes, whereas the largest percentage of farms in
72
The Fur-Trade of Canada
Prince Edward Island (28.3) have 30 foxes or over, in Ontario the general rule is small farms, whereas in Prince Edward Island the tendency is toward large farms. To an appreciable extent this situation is reflected in the forms of organization for ownership.
\
|
Percentage owning farms |
P.E.I. |
Ontario |
|
Individuals . |
69.4 |
75.2 |
|
Partnerships . |
14.8 |
19.9 |
|
Companies . |
15.7 |
4.7 |
|
Boarding foxes . |
44.5 |
26.1 |
The smaller farms of Ontario are financed by individuals and partnerships, whereas the larger farms of Prince Edward Island are financed by corporations. The larger percentage of corporations in Prince Edward Island is partly the result of the period of expansion from 1910 to 1914, in which Ontario shared to a less extent; but the amount of capital required to finance large farms is also important in determin¬ ing the form of organization.
The evidence which has been considered supports the '/j suggestion that experience and capital are important con¬ siderations. Xhu low death rate of young foxes in Prince Edward Island would appear to be the result of these factors. The, technique of fur-farming is undoubtedly of the greatest importance. The choice of location and the construction of the ranches require a high grade of experience. In 1923 it was estimated that $20,000 to $25,000 was required to purchase ten pairs of young foxes, build and equip a ranch, and operate it for one year. The choice and selection of stock is of the utmost importance. The problems connected with the breeding of foxes, feeding and raising of the young, sanitation and treatment of disease, demand long apprentice¬ ship and experience on the part of the managers. The ad¬ vantages of a large amount of capital are shown in the ability to hire competent managers, to purchase the best
Fur- Farming
73
stock, to equip thoroughly a ranch, to hire an attending veterinary surgeon, and to conduct an effective advertising campaign for the sale of the foxes. On the other hand, a large ranch has certain disadvantages, such as the possible destructiveness of contagious diseases and the fact that managers are not apt to have the same direct interest in the ranch as the individual owners. The industry has been dependent to a very large degree on'fhe individual ranchers, who have grown up with the business and acquired a thorough grasp of its problems.
The importance of technique in the industry has given rise to new forms of organization which merit further atten¬ tion. The practice has grown up of purchasing foxes from ranchers, of renting a pen from the rancher, and paying him an annual sum of $100 to $175 for care and feed until Decem¬ ber, when the fur is prime and the pelts may be sold. The rapid growth of the practice appears to have been partly a result of the discrepancy between the prices of live animals and the prices of pelts. In 1924 Prince Edward Island sold 992 adult foxes for $208,590, an average of $209.80 and 4,614 young foxes for $936,340, an average of $202.90. ^ In the same year 2,957 pelts of silver fox were sold for $317,775, an average of $107.40. Consequently fox ranchers have been interested in selling live animals rather than pelts. This tendency was especially evident in 1924. 1 As a result extensive advertising has been carried on encouraging pur¬ chases of live ‘animals. Similarly an important Canadian export business has grown up for live animals, showing an increase from 1,187 black and silver foxes in 1923 to 5,802 in 1925. _ _ _
1 Report on the Fur Farms of Canada, 1924, p. 7. On the other hand, larger fur-farms are beginning to advertise the silver fox from the pelt standpoint. Undoubtedly an effective co-operation between silver fox farmers will be necessary to secure tangible results. The great bulk of pelts in Prince Edward Island have been sold by consignment to auction sales. Fur companies bought a small proportion v through agents or correspondence {ibid., p. 23). In the Yukon Territory farmers find it advantageous to sell direct to the consumer and have a ready market in the tourist trade.
74
The Fur-Trade of Canada
It is impossible to predict the future of the trade, but certain tendencies are in evidence. In spite of the heavy losses occasioned by the purchase of live animals by larger numbers of inexperienced farmers, which may be increased -by advertising, and the loss through killing for pelts and I consistent advertising, eventually the stock of live animals \ will increase and prices will decline. The work of scientific investigators, the contributions of numerous fur-farming magazines, and the wider experience of large numbers of farmers will to some extent check the losses through death of the young. Larger numbers of pelts will undoubtedly come on the market, and prices will decline. On the other hand, silver fox fur cannot be imitated, and so long as prices are high the demand should continue, especially if judicious "advertising is brought into play. These are some of the factors which enter into the situation. The effects of changes \ in fashion and of improvement, or deterioration, of stock cannot be predicted. It would appear probable that Prince Edward Island,1 by virtue of the stock which it has pro¬ duced, the experience of its farmers, and the lead which it has in the industry, will be in a very favourable position as a producer of live animals. The problems of the industry could be met more effectively by an enlargement of the Report on Fur Farms to include statistics on information which cannot otherwise be made available. Although the Bureau of Statistics might find difficulty in obtaining funds to support extended work, it should be worthy of the govern¬ ment’s support.
The problems of the fox-farming industry illustrate to an appreciable degree the problems of farming other animals.
lThe Silver Fox Exhibition at the Royal Agricultural Winter Fair in Toronto, inaugurated in 1922 under the auspices of the Canadian Silver Fox Breeders Association, awards the great majority of prizes to Prince Edward Island stock. An interesting paper on the advantages of Prince Edward Island, especially in the supply of fish for food will be found in F. A. Stelgenbauer, Geographic Aspects of the Prince Edward Island Fur Industry. (Economic Geogranhv Ian 1927, pp. 110-125). "
The Problem of Supply
75
The experience gained in this connection has not yet been adequate to warrant an analysis. Various other furs are affected by changes in fashion in a more pronounced degree than silver fox, and the problem would be more complicated as a result. Undoubtedly the pioneers in the farming of other animals, in acquiring the technique of raising various species, and in developing the highest grades of furs, are making significant contributions for later progress.
The fur-farming industry of Canada is rooted deeply in recent economic developments. Theorising price of furs has been responsible for the progress of fur-farming, as it has. been responsible for the growth in regulations. But the development of fur-farming raises numerous problems of which the solution can be reached only by the persistent and steady work of pioneers. Each species has its own characteristics and its own problems which must be solved. It is hardly necessary to repeat that Canada, because of her climatic background, is in a strategic position for the develop¬ ment of fur-farming, and that the rise in fur prices has given it a secure place. The start which has been made in the farming of foxes has been a stimulus to experiment1 in other species. But, as yet, the information is too inadequate to warrant predictions. We should expect greater success in fur-farming in those animals which are increasing in scarcity in wild life, which have pelts of high value through scarcity and quality, which increase slowly, which have ineffective regulations, which can be bred in captivity to produce the highest grade of pelts, and which are not affected materially through changes in fashion.
§3. The Problem of Supply
Important results of the rise in prices have been shown in attempts to increase the supply of furs through conserva-
_ v _ _ _ _ — - — — - —
‘Notices of these experiments may be found in large numbers of journals and recent publications. See J. W. Jones, op. cit., pp. 20-112. Mink farming has received a great deal of attention as for instance in the Yukon Territory.
76
The Fur-Trade of Canada
V5
\ s>.
c
tion and through fur-farming. There_rern ain.s-thajtaskjof 'studying more adequately the problems of the_supplx_o^_ urs in general. ~ - — , — _ : -
Possibly no better instance exists of a fur which illustrates the long run cause of fluctuations in supply than thejpea^gr (see Graph 17). The supply of beaver dependecTTn the earlier history of the trade on the ability of the Indians as hunters, on the improvement of hunting methods following the importation of European devices, on the greater attention of the Indians to that occupation, on the number of Indians, and on ways and means of encouraging them to search over wider areas for new supplies. * Fluctuations were unusually rapid as a result of wars among the Indians, competition with the Dutch and the English, and wars between France and other powers. Inability to control the supply, and the regulations designed to that end, had results difficult to determine. Finally, the supply of beaver showed the effects of competition, of monopoly control, and of the substitution of nutria and silk in the manufacture of beaver hats. The effect of regulations in conserving the supply of beaver are shown in the taking of from 165,000 to 230,000 beaver pelts in Canada in the years 1920-1924.
Undoubtedly a long run factor leading to a decline in the supply of fine furs is increase in settlement. With settlement the food of fur-bearing animals disappears in the destruction of forms of plant and animal life on which fur- bearing animals subsist. The disappearance of timber and shelter has a further devastating effect. Especially in the northern land areas of Asia and North America, the development of agriculture, mining, and lumbering has been an important factor in determining the supply of fine furs.
The importance of the change in producing areas of the wor ls *urs may be gained from various estimates presented at different periods (see Table B). Fortunately, such esti¬ mates exist for a period similar to that discussed under prices 1863, 1907-9, 1913, and 1923-4. These estimates must necessarily be considered with the greatest caution,
|
/ |
Asia and Russia N. Amer. 18631 |
Asia 1907-92 |
Asia 19133 |
Asia 1923-44 |
1 |
|
1 Sable . |
109,000 |
95,000 |
90,000 |
6,000 |
I |
|
2 Pine marten . |
30,000 |
I |
|||
|
3 Stone marten . |
30,000 |
I |
|||
|
4 Japanese marten . |
10,000 |
I |
|||
|
5 Kolinsky . |
80,000 |
200,000 |
200,000 |
300,000 |
|
|
6 Ermine . |
350,000 |
700,000 |
750,000 |
1,000,000 |
|
|
7 Chinese and Japanese weasel |
700,000 |
500,000 |
|||
|
8 White weasel . |
5,000 |
— |
|||
|
9 Perwitzky . |
3,000 |
50,000 |
|||
|
10 Fitch . |
— |
150,000 |
200,000 |
I |
|
|
11 Siberian polecat . |
600,000 |
1 |
|||
|
12 Skunk . |
|||||
|
13 Silver fox . • . |
500 |
1,000 |
1,000 |
500 |
|
|
14 Cross fox . |
5,600 |
3,000 |
10,000 |
5,000 |
|
|
15 Red fox . |
45,000 |
150,000 |
200,000 |
601X000 |
I 14 _ _ 1 |
|
16 White fox . |
54,000 |
20,000 |
25,000 |
.. 4J0LDSa! |
|
|
17 Blue fox . |
- : . |
18 Grey fox.
19 Kitt fox.
• ^
20 Kitt (Brazil fox). . ,
■ yRM|||j
Pampas and_
BFi
1 he Problem of Supply
77
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78
The Fur-Trade of Canada
(a) Report of Committee on Hudson’s Bay Company, 1749, App. X, pp. 252-3.
( b ) 1822-1869. During the first part of the period attempts were made by monopoly control to restrict production. After 1869 with competition, efforts to “nurse” the supply were futile.
(c) The decline after 1880 was undoubtedly a result of the disappearance of the beaver and of prohibition regulations.
The Problem of Supply
79
but they represent a rough approximation of the fur supply during the period. One of the most striking features shown in a comparison of furs throughout the period from 1863 to 1924 was an increase in the number of countries from which furs have been taken and an increase in the supply of furs from these areas. Necessarily, this increase involves the use of furs of a poorer quality from southern and more tropical land areas. The distribution of land areas over the earth’s
Graph by R. S. Cook. Graph 17 Notes by H. A. Innis.
(1) These graphs are based on statistics following an addition of beaver skins sent through the Hudson’s Bay Co. and through other companies as shown in Poland. The effects of competition and monopoly control are shown very clearly.
80
The Fur-Trade of Canada
surface is significant to the development of the fur supply. The large land areas in the northern hemisphere, and the triangular shape of the continents in which the base of the triangle lies to the north and the apex to the south, limits the production of fine furs in colder seasonal localities to the northern areas of North America and Eurasia. Of the southern continents, Africa and South America, the base of the triangle and the great portion of the land areas are in tropical regions. The apex of the triangle and the smaller land areas extending to the southern temperate zones are devoted largely to agriculture, mining, and colonization activities. The southern hemisphere, with small land areas { located in climates suitable to the production of fine furs, is necessarily limited in its possibilities of supply. Northern North America and northern Eurasia, through the size of the land areas and climatic characteristics, are logically the centres of production of fine furs.
The supply1 of furs from southern areas has been partly dependent on colonization activities, but more largely on the increasing demand for furs. In \ South America furs produced in higher altitudes, in more southerly region^, and from “amphibious” animals, were most valuable and most rapidly exploited. Chinchilla was obtained in large quantities in 1863 (100,000). ""The numbers produced have fallen off \ materially and rapidly. After 1916 regulations and encour- j agement of the farming of chinchilla have to some \ extent affected the supply. A rapid rise in price and the declining supply of chinchilla led to an increase in the export of Bolivia, Plata, or bastard chinchilla, and the coarser furs of chinchillones (200,000 in 1923-4). Nutria (coypu) became important as a substitute for beaverTifthe manufacture of beaver hats. As in the case of chinchilla, production declined
JMr. R. H. Littlejohn, in an essay on the fur-trade of other countries, has collected considerable statistical material on the production of various furs in different countries. See H. Poland, Fur-bearing Animals in Nature and Com¬ merce (London, 1892), which is an important source book of information on individual animals.
The Problem of Supply
81
rapidly after 1863 (3,000,000). In 1923-4 the estimated pro¬ duction was given as 800,000. With the disappearance of more valuable furs, the cheaper “furs have become more important. Skunks havo increased from 5,000 in 1907-9 to 100,000 in 1923-4, opossum from 5,000 to 50,000. In the latter year 500,000 hares, were produced. Lamb-skins in¬ creased from 500,000 in 1907-9 to 1,000,000 in 1923-4. Guanaco in 1923-4 was estimated at 30,000; vicuna in 1913 at 15,000; domestic cat in 1923-4 at 50,000; tigers and wild cats at 100,000. Small numbers of otter, fisher, seal skins, jaguar (Brazil, Pampas, and Patagonia) fox do not affect the conclusion thats South America has become increasingly a source of supply of cheaper furs. With the more valuable furs decline has been characteristic and has been followed by rising prices, fur-farming, and regulation.
Australia and the islands of the South Seas are in a position similar to South America. More valuable furs have been rapidly depleted, restrictions have been necessary and the cheaper furs have greatly increased in importance. Kangaroo decreased from 50,000 in 1907-9 to 10,000 in 1923-4. Protection has been given in many districts of New South Wales and Victoria. The wombat has declined from 250,000 in 1907-9 to 2,000 in 1923-4, and protection regulations have been introduced. Opossum has decreased from 4,000,000 in 1907-9 to 1,500,000 in 1923-4, and protection has been granted in Tasmania, Victoria, and New South Wales. On the other hand, cheaper furs, as shown especially in rabbits, have increased remarkably. The estimated supply of rabbits increased from 20,000,000 in 1907-9 to 100,000,000 in 1923-4. Ringtails increased from 50,000 to 600,000 in the same period. Wallaby remained comparatively stationary, 800,000 in 1907-9, and 900,000 in 1923-4. Red fox increased from 60,000 to 400,000 in the same time. Domestic cats totalled 20,000 in the latter year. Smaller items, including badgers, nutria, and native cats, strengthen the general tendency toward an increasing supply of cheaper furs and increasing regulations to conserve the supply of more valuable furs.
82
The Fur-Trade of Canada
Africa, like Australia, becomes important in the estimates of fur supply in 1907-9. Monkeys have increased from 10,000 in 1907-9 to 35,000 in 1923-4; jackals doubled from 10,000 to 20,000; leopards increased from 5,000 to 20,000. In 1923-4 Africa produced also 200,000 gazelles, 5,000 genet cats, 2,000 tiger cats, 2,000 civet cats, and 10,000 Persian lamb. The increasing demand for furs has affected the continent of Africa especially since 1900.
The northern hemisphere, with large land areas located in climates suitable to the production of finer furs, is the most important base of supply. Value estimates (see Table C) are extremely unreliable for furs, but it has been estimated that in 1863 in a total value of $17^456,650 the southern hemisphere produced furs valued at $1,245,000, or 7.1%. In 1907-9, from a total of $70,400,000, the southern hemi¬ sphere produced $6,600,000, or 9.3%. In 1923-4, from a total of $212,600,000, the southern hemisphere produced $14,400,000, or 6.7%. In the northern hemisphere, North America (excluding Greenland) occupies a prominent position. In 1863, from a total estimate of $16,211,650, North America produced $5,354,250, or 33.0%. In 1907-9, from a total of $63,800,000 for the northern hemisphere, North America supplied $20,000,000, or 31.3%, and in 1923-4, from a total of $198,200,000, North America produced $75,000,000, or 37.8%.
In the more valuable furs of North America, general tendencies, as shown in the Hudson’s Bay Company’s sales, have been already indicated. Silver fox have increased from 1,500 in 1863 to 4,000 in 1907-9, and with activities of fur¬ farming to 20,000 in 1923-4. Cross fox increased from 4,300 to 15,000 and 20,000 in the same years; red fox from 60,000 to 200,000 to 400,000; white fox from 8,000 to 30,000 to 120,000 (largely a result of the opening of new areas in the Arctic); grey fox from 25,000 to 50,000 to 80,000; blue fox from 6,000 in 1907-9 to 30,000 in 1923-4 (partly a result of fur-farming especially in Alaska) ; kit fox remained stationary. Aside from the fact that these estimates are
The Problem of Supply
83
TABLE C: VALUE OF FURS
|
181 |
331 |
|
|
Country |
Number of Furs |
Value |
|
Siberia and Russian America. |
10,027,300 |
$4,652,500 |
|
Middle Europe |
9,377,500 |
3,817,800 |
|
North America |
5,169,600 |
5,354,250 |
|
European Russian, Sweden, Nor- |
||
|
way, Iceland, Greenland |
3,775,600 |
2,387,100 |
|
South America, South Asia, Afri- |
||
|
ca, Australia, South Sea Islands |
3,700,500 |
1,245,000 |
|
32,050,500 |
$17,456,650 |
|
|
1907-92 |
1923-45 |
|
|
Value |
Value |
|
|
5 marks = $1.00 |
5 gold marks = $1.00 |
|
|
Asia |
$22,000,000 |
$60,000,000 |
|
North America |
20,000,000 |
75,000,000 |
|
South America |
1,600,000 |
4,000,000 |
|
Australia |
5,000,000 |
10,000,000 |
|
Europe and Russia |
20,000,000 |
60,000,000 |
|
Oceana |
1,800,000 |
2,400,000 |
|
Germany |
2,000,000 |
|
|
Austria-Hungary |
1,000,000 |
|
|
Africa |
400,000 |
|
|
Greenland, Iceland, Spitzbergen, |
||
|
European Arctic |
800,000 |
1H. Lomer, op. cit., pp. 47-51. SE. Brass, op. cit., pp. 431-3. •Ibid., pp. 434-6.
84
The Fur-Trade of Canada
probably high, the increase in fox furs, especially of the finer and more valuable furs, has been the result of more effective trapping, marked increase through fur-farming, and the opening of new areas. Otter has increased from 20,000 in 1863 to 30,000 in 1923-4. Mink increased from 200,000 to 300,000, marten from 130,000 to 400,000. Fisher declined from 12,500 to 6,000. Beaver increased from 130,000 to 200,000 (partly a result of protective measures), lynx from 26,000 to 30,000, ermine (weasel) 400,000 in 1907-9 to 1,000,000 in 1923-4. Muskrat increased from 2,850,000 in 1863 to 8,000,000 in 1907-9, and to 20,000,000 in 1923-4; skunks from 100,000 to 1,500,000 to 3,500,000 during the same years; raccoons 600,000 in 1863 to 700,000 in 1923-4. Wolf increased from 12,500 in 1863 to 48,000 in 1907-9, and to 250,000 in 1923-4; bear from 15,000 in 1863 to 25,000 in 1923-4. Coarser and more southern furs increased rapidly — opossum from 250,000 in 1863 to 1,000,000 in 1907-9, and to 3,000,000 in 1923-4; marmot from 5,000 in 1863 to 25,000 in 1913; badger from 2,000 in 1863 to 20,000 in 1923-4; civet cat (lesser skunk) from 100,000 in 1907-9 to 600,000 in 1923-4. Domestic cat increased from 80,000 in 1907-9 to 150,000 in 1923-4. Furs of minor importance include the wolverine, which remained stationary at about 3,000. Moles appear in the 1923-4 estimates at 500,000; musk-oxen declined from 500 to 300; buffalo were estimated at 60,000 in 1863; fur seals have been protected, and the supply limited. These statistics tend to support the conclusion that prices in North America have increased. Large areas have been made accessible since 1863, population has increased, trapping has been carried on more effectively, regulations have been passed fostering an increase in fur-bearing animals, fur-farming has developed more valuable furs, and larger numbers of cheaper furs have been placed on the market. The existence of large areas in the northern regions, in¬ accessible and unsuited to agriculture, has been responsible for the fortunate position of the North American continent as a fur-producer in the period from 1863 to 1923-4>
V
The Problem of Supply
85
Eurasia is the most important fur-producing continent. In the larger area, Asia and the great territories in northern Russia and Siberia, are found the more valuable fur-bearing animals. Russian sable has decreased very rapidly from 109,000 in 1863 to 95,000 in 1907-9 and to 6,000 in 1923-4. Protection has been found essential to prevent extermination. The sea otter has practically disappeared. The ermine (Russian weasel or stoat) increased from 350,000 in 1863 to 1,000,000 in 1923-4. Kolinsky increased from 80,000 to 300,000 in the same period. Otter increased from 4,000 in 1863 to 40,000 in 1913; squirrel from 6,000,000 to 20,000,000; red fox from 45,000 to 600,000; kit fox from 30,000 to 300,000. White fox declined from 54,000 to 40,000. Wolf increased from 6,000 to 100,000. Other valuable furs from Siberia and northern Russia include mink (20,000), pine marten (30,000), stone marten (30,000), fitch (150-200,000), Siberian polecat (600,000), silver fox (500), cross fox (5,000), blue fox (3,000), grey fox (150,000), lynx (15,000), wolverine (4,000), beaver (1,000), bear (10,000). The cheaper, coarser, and more southern furs have increased rapidly. Marmot increased from 40,000 in 1863 to 200,000 in 1923-4. White hare and white rabbit increased from 2,000,000 to 4,000,000; lambskin from 700,000 to 1,000,000; broadtail from 100,000 in 1913 to 200,000 in 1923-4; slink lamb from 100,000 in 1907-9 to 300,000 in 1923-4; kid from 800,000 in 1907-9 to 2,000,000 in 1923-4. Other cheaper and more southerly and easterly furs include pony (50,000), Chinese goat (500,000 to 3,000,000 from 1907-9 to 1923-4), Tibet lamb (500,000), susliki (500,000), pahmi or Chinese badger (60,000 to 300,000 from 1907-9 to 1923-4), Chinese and Japanese weasel (500,000), perwitzky (5,000), Chinese and Japanese sea-fox (260,000 to 400,000), jackal (10,000), Chinese dog (200,000 to 2,000,000), domestic cat (100,000), tiger cat (30,000), leopard (10,000), monkey (50,000), raccoon dog (300,000). As in North America, fine furs have shown a tendency to increase. The opening. of new territory, as in
86
The Fur-Trade of Canada
Siberia,1 has undoubtedly been largely responsible. As_in North America, new areas have been settled, protection has 'Been essential for the more valuable fur- bearing animals, and cheaper furs and skins have increased in production to a" marked extent. In Europe, pine marten increased from 120,000 in 1863 to 150,000 in 1923-4; stone marten from 250,000 to 400,000; fitch from 380,000 to 400,000; red fox from 140,000 to 800,000; otter from 12,000 to 40,000; moles from 1,000,000 in 1907-9 to 10,000,000 in 1923-4. Other valuable furs include mink (20,000), kolinsky (10,000), squirrel (500,000), muskrat (400,000), white fox (10,000), lynx (10,000), bear (2,000), wolf '(5,000), wolverine (1,000), ermine (10,000). Cheaper furs increased rapidly. Hamster increased from 200,000 in 1863 to 2,500,000 in 1923-4; hare from 1,300,000 to 12,150,000; rabbit from 4,420,000 to 80,000,000; lambskin from 2,000,000 to 6,000,000. Other furs included domestic cat (400,000), wild sheep (200,000), badger (30,000), marmot (500,000). European fine furs increased more steadily than in Asia. In a country with relatively dense population animal life tends to reach an adjustment with environment, and rapid changes are not characteristic. On the other hand, the production of cheap furs increased rapidly, as in other countries.
I The total world production of furs has changed materially from 1863 to 1924. For all producing areas certain distinct features are in evidence. For animals which have very valuable furs, which are easily caught, and which become, as a result, increasingly scarce and valuable because of their expensiveness, regulations restricting the numbers caught are essential. The sea otter, fur-seal, chinchilla, wombat, and beaver may be mentioned as illustrations. In the case of animals difficult to catch and unusually scarce and valuable, attempts have been made to increase the supply through artificial means, such as fur-farming. In all continents there
1F°r an extended discussion of the importance of the fur-trade to Siberian economic development, see Jos. Klein, Der Sibirische Pelzhandel und seine Bedeu- tungjiir die Eroberung Sibiriens (Bonn, 1906).
The Problem of Supply
87
exists abundant evidence of the increasing demand for furs in the dependence on cheaper furs and the increasing attention to the raising of animals producing substitutes for fur — • Persian lambs, Chinese goats, Chinese dogs, ponies, rabbits, and hares. The demand for fine furs has continued to absorb larger numbers- a result of the opening of new areas, of increase in population, and of more effective trapping methods.
The analysis of fur production in the various continents is based on estimates which indicate clearly certain trends, but on which little reliance can be placed for an extended study. For this purpose it has been proposed that a study of fur production in CanadaT over an extended period might yield more satisfactory results. Unfortunately, however, difficulties are numerous. The great bulk of statistics on fur production have been obtained from the sales of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and from exports. For the post-war period the Dominion Bureau of Statistics has issued separate reports on fur production, which should become of very great value. On the other hand, one cannot escape the conclusion that these statistics are not complete. .The difficulty of collecting statistics on fur production renders this situation inevitable.
Nevertheless, by making allowance for various defects, it is possible that certain conclusions may be drawn. Statistics of Hudson’s Bay Company’s sales have the"Tollowing diffi¬ culties. Sales in January and March are of furs caught the preceding winter. No allowance can be made for the holding over of furs from year to year to secure higher prices, although it is understood that the Company follows the policy of auctioning all its furs without reserve. In recent years (since 1920) the policy of selling furs in Montreal and other American points, and of entering the consignment business, will necessitate even more careful scrutiny of sales statistics. With increasing competition, Hudson’s Bay Company sales represent less accurately the total production of Canada, although its sales are still basic desiderata. J^tices" and fashions tend to have an increasing effect on the numbers of
88
The Fur-Trade of Canada
furs sold, and on the activities of trappers. Prior to the introduction of steamboats and railways, furs from more distant departments reached London one or more years later than those from departments directly accessible to London. Transportation facilities were occasionally in¬ adequate, and a season’s furs were delayed a year. With monopoly control prior to increased competition, the Com¬ pany was in a position to direct production, as has been shown in the case of beaver and muskrat.
%
Nevertheless, graphs1 illustrating sales statistics from 1821 have pronounced tendencies. It has already been pointed out that definite cycles are evident in most furs. The causes of these cyclical fluctuations are not definitely known. generally conceded that rabbits are an important factor2 in determining the supply of furs from animals dependent on it for food. Seton in 1903-4 reported an abundance of rabbits in the Mackenzie River district. The Hudson’s Bay Com¬ pany’s returns for lynx reached a peak in 1906. Lynx are caught, not when there is an abundance of rabbits, but after the rabbits have disappeared. The number of lynx sold is not necessarily an index of the number of lynx, but rather an index of the number of lynx and the ease with which they may be caught. ..Although lynx is a notoriously stupid animal, it is more easily caught after the food supply of rabbits has decreased. Mice3 have been shown to be scarcely less important in the Labrador. In 1903 it was reported that
N 1Graphs of these statist^ from 1821 to 1910 may be found in E. T. Seton, The Arctic Prairies (Toronto, 1911), pp. 103-106, and from 1821 to 1914 in G. C. Hewitt, The Conservation of Wild Life in Canada (New York, 1921), Ch. IX. Mr. D. M. Gowdy, in a study on fur production, has reproduced the latter graphs and extended them to include the data of the Dominion Bureau of Statistics. The latter has included in his study miscellaneous information on the important fur-bearers, and also on important factors of production, including Hudson’s Bay Company personnel and organization, United States organizations, improved methods of trapping, prices, fashions, conservation measures, fur¬ farming, and Canadian exports.
2See E. T. Seton, The Arctic Prairies, Ch. XIV.
’See W. B. Cabot, Labrador (Boston, 1920), Ch. X.
The Problem of Supply
89
mice were relatively scarce and foxes relatively abundant. In 1904 mice were more abundant, and fox returns relatively scarce.. _ With arr abundant supply of food foxes were difficult to trap. In 1905 mice were most abundant, and in 1906 they disappeared. The result was a marked increase in fox returns. Cabot has thrown out interesting suggestions as to various other results. Ptarmigan, caribou, fish, predatory animals, predatory birds, Indian life, and the fur returns of Labrador were affected by this fluctuation irTTood supply. With fox and other furs, even more than with lynx, fur returns represent not numbers of animals, but numbers of animals, scarcity of food, and ease with which they may be caught. Variations of fur returns have been shown in some cases to be the* result of still other factors. Fluctuations in muskrat returns are alleged to result from climatic changes, especially rainfall. Seasons1 of high wafer~ are favourable to the muskrat, and seasons of drought and low water un¬ favourable. Various diseases are also important in reducing numbers during a period of overcrowding.
The causes of cyclical fluctuations in animal life have occasioned considerable speculation. It has been suggested that temperature is a primary controlling factor, and “that fluctuations will increase in volume as the temperature of the isotherm decreases”.2 The admittedly greater fecundity of northern forms of life has been urged as partly responsible for this tendency. A further result of rapid increase in numbers is shown in over-population, overcrowding, the spread of epidemics, reduced fecundity, sex inhibition, loss of vitality, and weakness of the young. Interrelated factors include the activity and vitality of bacteria responsible for the spread of disease and the varying supplies of vegetation and food. The importance3 of climate and food supply has
’See R. McFarlane, Through the Mackenzie Basin (London, 1908), p. 245.
2A. B. Howell, Periodic fluctuations in the numbers of small mammals (Journal of Mammalogy, vol. 4, no. 3, August, 1923, p. 150). Also E. T. Seton, op. cit.
8C. S. Elton, Periodic fluctuations in the number of animals: their causes and effects (British Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 11, October, 1924).
90
The Fur-Trade of Canada
been stressed in a recent study. It has been shown that lemmings have an average periodic fluctuation of 3^ years, the maxima occurring "synchronously in North America and Europe, and probably all around the Arctic regions. The varying hare in Canada has a period of 10 and 11 years.” An attempt has been made to link these varying periods of 3| and 10 to 11 years to the sunspot cycle,1 and consequently to climate. On the other hand, the evidence is not conclusive. Other studies2 have shown a shorter cycle — varying as follows: hare 8.5 years, lynx 9.5 years, red fox 9.6 years, cross fox 9.4 years, black fox 9.6 years, Arctic fox 4.2 years, marten 9.5 years, fisher 9.7 ye'ars, mink 9.7 years. No evidence of correlation of this cycle with lake levels3 appears to exist — not even in the case of the muskrat. The extreme difficulty of gathering adequate data makes impossible a conclusive study. If data were available for certain strategic posts over a long period of time, information might be gained on the emigration of animals as well as on production. It is difficult to state whether the increase in the fur-trade and the capture of large numbers of carnivorous animals has in any sense enhanced the maladjustment incidental to the lag between the rate of increase of rodents and carnivores. Statistics during a very early period of the trade should throw some light on the problem. It appears to be generally admitted that the rate of increase of rodents, especially in more northerly areas is more rapid than the increase of carnivores — the lag between the rates of increase disturbing
’See the work of E. Huntington, especially Climatic Changes: their Nature and Causes (New Haven, 1922) and Earth and Sun (New Haven, 1923).
2C. G. Hewitt, The Conservation of Wild Life in Canada (New York, 1921), Ch. IX. Mr. George Walker, a trader at Little Salmon on the Yukon, informs the writer that rabbits, especially the young, on the upper Yukon were practically wiped out in the winter of 1924 and 1925 by a sudden and early drop in tempera¬ ture to 40°. This disappearance was not in accord with the regular cycle. As usual, lynx_and fox were scarce. Rabbits were numerous on the Lower Yukon in 1926.
J* ^ 1 • White, Altitudes of Canada (Commission of Conservation Report Ottawa). ’
The Problem of Supply
91
the balance at periodic intervals. Whether this lag is com¬ plicated with periodic climatic changes and changes in food supply still remains largely an unsettled problem, although opinion appears to favour the belief that temperature especially has appreciable significance. With present know-, ledge it is impossible to state, and under present competitive conditions utopian to ask, whether a restriction of the fur catch, especially of lynx, during a period of minima for rabbits, would have any effect in maintaining a better adjusted balance, and reducing the violence of fluctuation of all furs. It is quite possible that careful research and adequate conditions of control might increase materially the supply of Canadian furs. Under present competitive conditions, however, this can scarcely be expected. No single interest can afford to adopt measures of conservation so that other interests may gain.
It is a fundamental point that the supply of rodents, or the food of important fur-bearing animals, can be increased rapidly, and that the supply of these fur-bearing animals can likewise be increased.
The problem remains as to the trend of fur production in Canada. Comparison over long periods are unusually diffi¬ cult. However, returns of the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1865 for the districts of the northern department1 are available, and these may be compared with similar areas reported in the statistics for 1923-4. For marten 1865 may be regarded as a trifle high for an average year, and 1923-4 as a very good average year, possibly a trifle low. In the Mackenzie River and Athabaska districts, 30,369 marten skins were sent out in 1865, and in the Northwest Territories and Alberta (roughly comparable areas), 13,350 in 1923-4. In English River, Cumberland, Saskatchewan, Severn River, Red River, and Norway House, 18,197 marten were exported in 1865, and in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, 6,386 in 1923-4. Possibly a better method of comparison, the northern depart- ment excluding Lac la Pluie (now in Ontario) produced in
lSee R. MacFarlane, Through the Mackenzie Basin (London, 1908), p. 272.
92
The Fur-Trade of Canada
1865 a total of 45,817 marten. Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and the Northwest Territories produced 19,734 in 1923. A similar comparison for fisher in the same areas shows a production of 1,074 for the northern department in 1865, and 845 in 1923-4 for the four governments. More¬ over, 1865 was a low year for fisher and 1923-4 an average year. Manitoba is the most important area, and the omission of Lac la Pluie is responsible for a reduction of 322. For similar areas 5,687 otter were supplied in 1865, an average year, and 3,720 in 1923-4, a very good year. Minks suggest an important difference — 21,915 in 1865, and 78,070 in 1923-4. Beaver shows a slight decline from 67,389 in 1865 to 62,555 in 1923-4. The effects of regulation renders analysis of slight value. Black bear remained stationary, 2,464 in 1865, and 2,465 in 1923-4. Lynx declined from 25,186 in 1865, a low year, to 15,227 in 1923-4, a very good year. Red fox increased from 8,697 to 29,487. Wolves declined from 7,696 in 1865, a high average, to 2,575 in 1923-4, a bad year. For the cheaper furs the trend is too conspicuous to warrant com¬ parison. Skunks, muskrats, badgers, and ermines have shown a remarkable increase.
If we allow for probable inaccuracies in statistics, certain conclusions are suggested. Some important fur-bearing animals have declined appreciably in the past half-century. The causes of the general changes have been already sug¬ gested. A rising price for fine furs has led to increased trapping, to further decline, to a rise in price, and thus cumulatively to reduced numbers. Larger numbers of trappers, interested primarily in higher returns, have con¬ centrated their attention on the most profitable furs. In¬ crease in settlement, improved transportation facilities, more effective trapping methods, and the rise in price, have been responsible also for the tremendous increase in the supply of cheaper furs. Smaller animals, which are unusually fecund-, which have a wide range of food, and which are difficult to capture, have not suffered materially through the increase in trapping, and the rise in price. But undoubtedly
The Problem of Supply
93
the trend will proceed along the lines of increasing scarcity of finer furs, with the result that steps will be necessary to ensure a continued supply.
The development and improvement of steel traps has been an important factor, Large-scale standardized pro¬ duction has greatly increased the output; and the stronger, lighter steel traps have made it possible for the trapper to carry larger numbers to the interior. It has been estimated that eight to nine million traps are produced yearly by about fifteen manufacturers. With the improvement in traps has gone an increase in the number of white trappers. Indian trappers, although regarded as more skilled in trapping, are not as systematic in setting traps as the white man. The pecuniary return has a more powerful influence on the white trapper. The increase in the number of white trappers has been marked, and has accompanied improvements in methods of trapping. New transportation lines incidental to the construction of the railways have been important factors in encouraging the white trapper. Changes in business con¬ ditions have also had an important effect. A period of high prices, such as that which followed the Paris Exposition, or which occurred during the war, when rats were said to have brought as high as $4.00 at Cumberland House, greatly increases competition. During a period of unemployment and depression, large numbers become trappers. If there is severe competition among traders the profit is larger from trapping than trading, and traders become trappers. The whole sweep of machine industry has been responsible for a reinforcing of the ranks of the trappers. The trapper is’, primarily an individualist who finds it difficult to work under an employer, or to adjust himself to the demands of modern industry.
The industry is carried on by an individual trapper, and usually not more than two trappers work together, each setting lines in a different direction. The trapper’s capital and equipment1 vary greatly with the individual and the
^ee Appendix B.
94
The Fur-Trade of Canada
country. To get into the trapping grounds, the “outfit” can be floated down stream in roughly built and inexpensive scows with a home-made sail, or taken in boats, canoes, or “kickers”. The scow may be broken up and the lumber employed for building. A base cabin is usually built on the bank of one of the main streams, preferably near a small tributary in which fresh water and fish may be found without difficulty. A clump of large spruce trees or other timber sufficiently large to furnish logs for the cabin is a further consideration. A log cabin of the required dimensions is built, the logs chinked with moss, and the roof made with a layer of poles covered with moss and dirt. A provision house or cache — a small log structure built a considerable distance from the ground and supported by four stout poles covered with tin to keep out mice and other marauders and possibly a drying frame, if fish are abundant, or a kennel, if the trapper has dogs, complete the establishment. Small boards of various sizes for stretching the skins are easily supplied. The trap-line varies greatly. In many cases the trap¬ per inspects the country, and in the early autumn places a line and builds small cabins at intervals of ten to fifteen miles over a line extending from twenty to sixty miles and beyond. These cabins are usually eight by ten feet, built of light logs at a height to clear the head from six inches to one foot. Logs are put down, and moss laid on each log to be packed by the next top log. The roof is covered with moss and dirt. A small cabin may be built in three to four days. Each cabin is supplied with one outfit of blankets (two double blankets), pots, and pans, to save packing.
Other trappers take less elaborate precautions. The trapper waits for the first snowfall, inspects the district to find where tracks are most abundant, and then builds small shelters. More energetic trappers build no shelters, carry a tent, or sleep out, and set out the traps, visit them weekly, or as often as convenient, and at the end of a month or so reset the traps on another line. The number of traps varies from 100 to 250, and are valued roughly at $1.00 per trap.
The Problem of Supply
95
Additional equipment for this work includes a camping outfit. Dogs are regarded with disfavour by many trappers. Dog feed must be supplied, and this is expensive in time or money. I he trapper must provide for feed during the summer.
Returns vary appreciably. They depend on the trapper’s experience, foresight, and' energy, his knowledge of animal habits, of trapping methods, of the country, and of fur, his bargaining ability, the prices of fur, cycles of fur production, forest fires, and his luck. An average of $200 to $300 profit is given by many trappers. Others are said to have earned in some seasons from $1,500 to $2,000. An unusual catch at Fort Simpson of 129 marten in one season by one trapper gave an even larger profit. Many trappers undoubtedly lose heavily with changes in prices, and in animal migrations. New trappers and competition seriously reduce profits. Less respect is paid to the unwritten law regarding the sanctity of trap lines. Trap lines may be registered, as in British Columbia, but competition is serious in any case. A skilled trapper usually acquires the essential knowledge of the industry in two or three years. Each animal has its own peculiarities, and allowance must be made for numerous factors in each set — the depth of the snow, possibility of drift incidental to the character of the bush, of shelter, and of the season. Allowance must also be made for probable animal migrations and cyclical fluctuations. Old trappers are very cautious about information on deadfalls, snares, traps, baits, and the usual stock in trade of a trapper’s knowledge. Each trapper to a large extent has his own formulae for getting fur. Disputes are numerous on the merits of sizes and manufacture of traps, on the season for skins, and other problems of trapping. Large numbers of magazines v and articles are available offering advice as to various sets and devices, but these are regarded with an interest not always sympathetic. The returns may be sold to the nearest post or sent out to be sold at a per cent, com-
96
The Fur-Trade of Canada
mission. The trapper1 spends his money in the summer, and returns with an outfit in time to start the next season s work.
A variation of trapping has developed in some centres in the capture of animals, especially foxes and coyotes, in the summer, keeping them until the winter and killing them when the fur is prime.
The technique of the trapping industry favours an increase in the number of white trappers. Machine industry has made possible a marked increase in variety and quantity of supplies which can be taken to the trapping grounds. The capital required is not an important obstacle, since an increasing number of traders are willing to “stand ” a trapper to supplies. The apprenticeship is not extensive, since a fairly large number of people have been accustomed to farming, to frontier life, and to trapping. The ranks of the trappers can be increased rapidly because of this large reserve.
The prospects are not promising. It appears probable that competition among traders will increase with the constant improvement of transportation facilities. The small experienced trader has certain advantages under conditions of favourable transportation over the large company. He is more actively interested in the trade. He is in a position to study a local situation more thoroughly, and to act with greater promptness. Small traders have not been slow in presenting their case to the government or in protesting
*For information on trapping of various animals, see publications of the A. R. Harding Publishing Company, Columbus, Ohio, and current publications, such as Family Herald and Weekly Star, Hunter, Trader and Trapper, and With Rod and Gun in Canada. See also Agnes Laut, The Fur Trade of America (New York, 1921), and The Story of the Trapper (Toronto, 1902), and the works and articles of Arthur Heming, for miscellaneous information on methods of skinning various animals, treatment of skins, and other details. Very valuable information on the trapping of various animals is also available in B. R. Ross, A Popular Treatise on the Fur-bearing Animals of the Mackenzie River District (Can¬ adian Naturalist and Geologist, 1861, and R. G. Hodgson, Trapping in North¬ ern Canada (Oshawa, 1925).
The Problem of Supply
97
against the larger company’s activities in that direction. A small organization is commonly obliged to resort to greater activity in pushing the trade. Small companies have adopted a modification of the old North West Company’s policy in leasing the posts to private individuals for a percentage of the profits with interesting results. The problem of all new competing companies with a large number of posts is primarily one of personnel. The Lamson-Hubbard Company un¬ doubtedly failed to appreciate the necessity of securing a large number of reliable, experienced, energetic, and aggres¬ sive traders. The policy followed by their manager, Mr. Bryan, of giving post managers independent control had its disadvantages under these circumstances. The control exercised by Mr. Bassett, another officer of that company, had its disadvantages, which were equally in evidence. No form of control could be built up to supplant the inadequacies of the personnel. On the other hand, larger numbers of traders and trappers are gaining a more intimate acquaintance with the country and the trade. Governmental regulations alleged to have been passed through the influence of large companies to keep out the white trapper cannot be regarded as wholly successful. These regulations include setting aside of large Indian reserves on which the white trapper is for-*~~"* bidden, and the payment of large licence fees by the traders and trappers. Competition is increased in the restricted areas on which white trappers are allowed to trap. White trappers must go farther afield to find territory which has not been worked over. Moreover, the payment of a licence fee necessitates more vigorous trapping to enable the trapper to make a profit above his heavy expenses. Arguments against the white trapper to the effect that he traps per¬ sistently, and wipes out the fur, and that the regulations are designed to keep out the white trapper, to an appreciable extent lose their force. Licensed traders must in turn stimulate the trappers whom they have outfitted to greater activity in order to make a profit above their heavy expenses.
The white trapper has penetrated far down the Mackenzie
98
The Fur-Trade of Canada
River. There is evidence that the regulations cannot be enforced with the limited staff and the vast areas in which they are to apply. In view of these considerations, prospect of the disappearance of competition is slight, in spite of temporary checks which may be adopted restricting the white trapper and the white trader.
The problem is to some extent related to the policy of the Indian Department. The Indian Department of the Canadian government has adopted a consistent policy of giving a fixed annual payment, and in addition various goods, to the Indians. To a large extent this policy involves a continual subsidy to the fur-trade and to the missions, as is well shown in an interesting extract from the work of an old fur-trader. “Drever said to me, ‘God, Mack! You have got them well trained. But how about the other bands? ’ I said, ‘Every band will do just the same as you have seen done to-day.’ And so they did. Each band came up as they were paid by the Agent, and did exactly the same. We had three days of it in the store night and day. The third day the Boss took off his coat and went at the trading with the rest of us. Five hours after the agent had finished paying, my cash balanced exactly with the amount the agent had paid out. We had made a clean sweep, and the treaty payments at Crooked Lakes were over for that year.”1 Goods were sold immediately after the treaty at high prices after allowance had been made for heavy overhead costs, and high charges of transportation. The effects are less marked under conditions of competition, but it is well known that many important fur-traders acquired sufficient capital through following up treaty-making parties to engage in the fur-trade on a larger scale.
Aside from the view held by missionaries, Indian agents, and some of the trading companies, that the white trader and trapper has an unfortunate influence on the Indian, the question .of ^competition has other problems. Requisitions
lN. M. W. J. Mackenzie, The Men of the Hudson’s Bay Company (Fort William, 1921), p. 112.
The Problem of Supply
99
are made out from year to year by the fur-trading companies on the basis of the last year’s turnover. Goods are brought in to feed and clothe the^ white population and the Indians, Agriculture is necessarily limited, especially at the more northerly posts. Game,, including moose, ducks, geese, rabbits, and fish, are in some instances protected, but such protection, because of the vastness of the area, the limited supervision, and the difficulty of framing adequate regula¬ tions, is not important. In many instances, as, for example, in regard to the regulations incidental to the Migratory Birds Convention Act, complaints are numerous and little sym¬ pathy can be expected. With the close of navigation the food supply is limited to these sources. Following conditions of severe competition and high prices, such as in 1921, the supply of food in the posts is exhausted rapidly. If rabbits are scarce at this time, and other developments reduce the available food supply, the Indians undoubtedly suffer. The reserve kept by the Indian agent may even prove inadequate. Competition does not permit a careful estimate of the exact needs of the situation in the requisitions of the companies. Moreover, unsuccessful competitors, faced with heavy over¬ head charges and material losses, have been known to turn to such profitable business as the sale of lemon extract and N other deadly concoctions. The situation is complicated in , that a scarcity of rabbits and food supply is, as a rule, followed by scarcity of fur and inability to purchase supplies. The enforcement of the game laws is closely related to the ^ fur- trade. Competition renders impossible co-ordination between the post managers, such as is necessary to distribute supplies to consumers evenly throughout the year.
An important post which has heavy overhead charges and high costs of transportation, such as the posts on the Liard River, with approximately 200 people, may have one company import1 125 tons of freight, including 30 tons of flour, 2 tons of lard, If tons bacon, 15 tons groceries, 1 ton rice, roughly 50 tons of food, the remainder being hardware
!See Appendix C.
100
The Fur-Trade of Canada
and dry goods. The total returns of fur floated down stream may exceed 2 tons. The whole balance of supplies can be planned with appreciable foresight under one company. With the addition of a competing company, which plans its requisitions on similar data, the result is one of unusual uncertainty. Competition is not in the best interests of the " fur-trade or of the Indian. The fur-trade, as carried on over wide areas thinly populated, and requiring heavy capital investment in transportation and trading posts, can only be carried on in the long run under conditions, not of cut-throat competition, but of monopoly. Police protection is not adequate to offset the effects of 'competition as they have always appeared under those conditions in the fur-trade. There are indications that the trade in the more distant areas is about to enter on an era of competition similar to that which has characterized the trade in earlier periods. It is scarcely possible that the Indian Department or any authority will be able to prevent developments of sinister import to the Indians.
These considerations are aside from the problems raised by the transient trader interested in getting the largest possible returns in the shortest possible time, without regard to the long run results of that policy. It would not be difficult to collect a series of statements, beginning with the works of Champlain and ending at the present time, each with a burden to the effect that competition in the fur-trade is intolerable to the trader, to the Indian, and to the nation which hopes to conserve its fur resources. Increasing com- r petition among traders favours increased trapping and more \ persistent destruction of animals. The constant improve¬ ment of transportation facilities renders competition inevit¬ able, and greatly increases the strain on regulations designed to check the destruction of fur- bearing animals. ft is questionable whether regulations can be elaborated to an adequate extent to check the forces which are let loose by new improvements in transportation and by the effects of modern machine industry.
IV. THE MANUFACTURE OF FURS1
§1. Technique
The marked increase in the demand and in the price of furs, and the consequent rapid increase in production, have had pronounced effects on the manufacturing industry. A ■ tremendous increase in production has brought about marked improvements in manufacturing processes. The manufacture of furs has passed through an industrial revolution, and as in other commodities the pressure of demand has been a dominant factor.
The highly technical character of the industry favoured the organization of furrier’s guilds which guarded the secret processes of manufacture and handed them on from genera¬ tion to generation. During the early periods the guilds were strongly entrenched. As in the manufacture of other com¬ modities, increasing pressure from the larger supplies of furs led to specialization within the guilds, and eventually, with the development of more efficient methods of treating furs on a large scale, the guild gradually declined. So general has become the diffusion of knowledge as to secret processes that schools have been organized with classes in furriery, and elaborate manuals2 describing in detail the methods of manufacture have appeared on the market. The marked increase in manufacturing in the United States during the war following the disruption of European manufacturing
■Mr. S. A. Snyder, in his thesis on the manufacture of furs and related industries, which is in the possession of the Extension Department, University of Toronto, has given a comparatively detailed account of the processes involved in the handling of the furs from the trapper to the consumer.
2C. J. Rosenberg, Furs and Furriery (London), and W. E. Austin, Principles and Practice of Fur Dressing and Fur Dyeing (New York, 1922), are examples. The following pages will describe the industry as it has been outlined in these works. *
102
The Fur-Trade of Canada
greatly furthered the tendency toward wide dissemination of knowledge.
The development of manufacturing on a large scale assumes the existence of large quantities of uniform, stand¬ ardized raw material which can be treated in a uniform, standardized manner and turned out as a uniform, standard¬ ized product. Furs of a uniform character are notoriously difficult to obtain in large number. For the same species of | animal the furs will vary in size and condition with the age and condition of each animal, with the season in which they have been caught, with the district, with the methods of capture, with the methods in which they have been taken from the animal, and with the methods of treatment prior to shipment.
The method of taking the pelt from the animal by the trapper is closely dependent on the demands of later pro¬ cesses. With several animals “the skin is cut from the tail down the centre of the belly to the jaw after which it is care¬ fully removed from the body and spread out flat. It is then nailed on boards, fur side inwards.” These are referred to as open skins. The skins which are usually ‘opened’ are seals, chinchilla, beaver, nutria, moles, bears, marmots, Persian, and all Chinese skins.” “Cased” skins are those which are cut down the hind legs on either side of the tail and then pulled off over the animal’s front feet and head, leaving the fur inside. These skins are stretched on boards of various sizes with the fur inwards and then dried. Oc¬ casionally, as in the case of a particularly fine marten skin, the fur will be left outside to show the depth of the dark
colour. Obviously the less promising pelts are handled in the usual way.
The skins brought in by the trapper include a great variety of each species and a number of species. According to the demands of the later manufacturing processes, they are sorted and graded on the basis of size, condition, season, and colour1. It is a common statement that no two men, no
‘Actual quotations for Januarj^ 1917, paid by^erchants in the trade at
The Manufacture of Furs
103
matter how experienced, will grade the same furs in the same way. After the preliminary grading, the furs are shipped to large centres in which the demand for fur products is concentrated, and to which the purchasers of large quanti¬ ties of fur for manufacture may come without inconvenience. The necessity of purchasing large numbers of furs of a uniform
|
Large Small Muskrat Spring, Winter, and Fall |
Fall |
Kitts |
||
|
N.Y., P.A., N.J., N. Eng., E. Canada |
48 |
38 |
20 |
.05 |
|
Mich., So. Wis., Ohio, Ind., Ill., W.Va. |
48 |
38 |
20 |
.05 |
|
Central & S. Ohio, Ind., Ill., W.Va., Ky . |
42 |
32 |
18 |
.05 |
|
Central & S.Pa., N.J., Del. & Md. . . |
42 |
32 |
18 |
.05 |
|
Va., Carolinas, Tennessee . |
40 |
30 |
15 |
.04 |
|
Mo., Ark., Mans., Pac. Coast . |
38 |
28 |
15 |
.04 |
|
Wis., Minn., Iowa, Neb . |
40 |
30 |
15 |
.04 |
|
Black . |
55 |
45 |
20 |
.08 |
large and showing the variation in prices of raw furs at the time, according to geographical differences in source of origin.
See A. Belden, op. cit., p 483.
Mink
East. Canada, New Eng.,
Minn., N.Wis., and N.
Mich . ■ .
Wis., N.Iowa, and Dakotas Mich., N.Ohio, N.Ind., N.
Ill .
S.Pa., S.N.J., Del., Md., &
S.Iowa, Neb., Kans., & N.
Mo....v .
Pac. Coast, & Rocky Mt.
States .
S.Car., Tenn., Miss., Ala.
& Ga .
S.Mo., Ark., Okla., Tex.,
|
Large |
Medium No. 1 |
Small |
No. 2 |
No. 3 |
No. 4 |
|
5.00 |
3.50 |
2.50 |
2.50 |
.75 |
.25 |
|
4.50 |
3.25 |
2.25 |
2.25 |
60 |
.25 |
|
4.50 |
3.25 |
2 25 |
2.25 |
.60 |
.25 |
|
i 3 .50 |
2.50 |
1.75 |
1.75 |
.60 |
.20 |
|
3.25 |
2.25 |
1.50 |
1.50 |
.60 |
.20 |
|
3.25 |
2.25 |
1.50 |
1.50 |
.60 |
.20 |
|
3.00 |
2.00 |
1.50 |
1.50 |
.40 |
.20 |
|
3.00 |
2.00 |
1.50 |
1.50 |
.40 |
.20 |
|
. 2.75 |
1.75 |
1.35 |
1.35 |
.40 |
.20 |
|
2.75 |
1.75 |
1.35 |
1.35 |
.40 |
.20 |
|
2.75 |
1.75 |
1.35 |
1.35 |
.40 |
.20 |
|
2.50 |
1.65 |
1.25 |
1.25 |
.40 |
.20 |
|
2.25'' |
1 .60 |
1 10 |
1.10 |
.35 |
.15 |
104
The Fur-Trade of Canada
character for manufacturing purposes is the occasion for a further grading of furs carried out with the greatest possible accuracy. The difficulty of examining large numbers of furs and the necessity of examining samples of the grade of fur which is purchased have been responsible for the emphasis placed on the auction system. Sales of large quantities of furs must be conducted with the utmost confidence in the grading of the furs by the sellers. A system of grading has been devised showing the character of the furs and the district from which they have come, and ensuring an accurate description.
After the furs have been accurately graded and large numbers of the same grade packed together, they are sent to the manufacturer to be dressed. A brief description of the processes involved in dressing is essential to an under¬ standing of the organization of the industry. For purposes of dressing, winter skins are divided into two classes, close- grained and open-grained. The close-grained skins include sable, ermine, marmot, and skunk, and the open-grained skins, fox, wolf, and bear. The furs are scraped and cleaned of superfluous flesh and fat. The first process of “liquoring” is applied to all skins. Fat and fleshy skins are placed in tanks of salt water for about twenty-four hours to soften and free the skin of grease. Various modifications of this process are used for different skins, including the addition of certain chemicals to the water, the length of time involved, the use of wet sawdust rather than water, and the working of the skins with a beaming knife. The result is the softening of the hard, dry pelts which have been shipped by the trapper. After this process the skins are thoroughly rinsed, and are placed in a hydro machine, which consists of a large iron cylindrical bath containing a perforated basin which revolves at a high rate of speed. The skins are placed with the fur outside, and the rapid turning of the machine removes the watef. The process again varies with the species of fur. d he skins are taken from the hydro to a large drum about ten feet in diameter. The drum contains oak, beech, birch,
The Manufacture of Furs
105
or any hard, light-coloured sawdust, and is rotated slowly from one to two hours. By this means oil and dirt are removed from the hair. 'The sawdust is in turn removed by caging - •' The skins are placed in a protected wire cage with one-inch mesh. This mesh allows the sawdust to leave the cage when in motion. A quarter of an hour to an hour is required to free the skins from dust. The next process is that of “fleshing”. All fleshy and fatty materials are removed from The skin to expose the corium, and provide for the effective and uniform action of the tanning chemicals. Each skin is again immersed in salt water for an extended time to make it more pliable. The “flesher” removes superfluous flesh by passing the skin across a knife. The process requires considerable skill, because of the thin character of the skin and its liability to damage from cuts. Fleshing machines have been devised for certain skins in which a rapidly revolv¬ ing blade removes the flesh from the skin, but, on the whole, the process is carried out by manual work. Various furs require special treatment in the use of chemicals and other devices to remove the flesh and the operation is an extremely delicate one. The high value of furs necessitates the greatest caution. The skins are then taken to a drying room. The drying is carried out gradually, and usually with steam heat, until the skins are perfectly dried.
After these preliminary operations the skin is practically ready for the final process of tanning. For this process the skins are again softened by an application of salt water as a preparatory measure. As in the leather industry, the process of tanning is extremely varied and complicated. The character of the tanning materials depends in part on the character of the pelt, on the time, labour, and cost of materials, and on the character of the dyes and chemicals which are to be used after tanning. The salt-acid tan, or pickle tan, is extensively used because of its cheapness and ease of application. A typical formula includes a 10% salt solution with half an ounce of sulphuric acid to each gallon. The liquor is applied evenly on the skins with a brush, and then
106
The Fur-Trade of Canada
they are placed in a pile for a period of time varying from a few hours to two or three days. The tanned skin is of a milky-white colour. A large number of variations in the character of the formula, in the acids and materials, in the methods of treatment, in the temperature and conditions under which tanning takes place, and in the length of time required, are characteristic of the tanning material. Mineral tans include chiefly alum and chrome. The alum tan gives a leather greater stretch and flexibility than with pickle tan. It is used especially for rabbits and moles and for better grades of tan for such furs as martens, muskrat, and squirrels. Alum or aluminium sulphate and salt are the usual con¬ stituents in proportions of two of alum to one of salt, or in other varying proportions. The formulae are innumerable. Chrome tan has very limited uses because of the great care and accuracy necessary in the treatment, and because the leather has a pale blue-green tint. On the other hand, the leather is very durable and very resistant to water. Chrome, alum, and salt are the principal constituents. In chamois dressing, various animal fats are used. Oils which absorb oxygen from the air, such as seal oil, whale oil, cod liver oil, and which are referred to as “drying oils”, are of greatest importance. The oil is rubbed on the flesh side of the skins. “They are then folded up and put into a ‘kicker’ where they are tramped for two or three hours to work in the oil.” The kicker is a receptacle, capable of holding from 1,000 to 1,500 muskrat skins, in which two wooden hammers turn and pound the skins. The pelts are hung up in a warm room to permit the oil to oxidize, another coat of oil is applied, and the same process repeated. After the tanning process is complete, the excess oil is removed, and the skins are washed and dried. Fine furs, such as marten and mink, are placed in ball drums in which balls of varying sizes and weights, depending on the character of the skin, work in the oil while the drum is being rotated. Various formulae containing formaldehyde are used for tanning purposes. The resulting leather combines the properties of alum tan and chamois tan.
The Manufacture of Furs
107
This process is claimed to give immunity from the attacks of vermin and moths. Various other tans, and combinations of tans, are used for the manufacture of special leather. The relatively slow progress of chemistry in explaining the process of tanning is responsible for the tenacious hold of innumerable open and secret formulae.
With the completion of tanning, the skins1 are dried. Great care must be taken to ensure steady and rapid drying from the standpoint of economy of time and the effects on the leather. Considerable progress has been made in the evolution of efficient drying machinery. The conveyor dryer is a steel enclosure holding air, heated by steam coils to a uniform temperature, through which the skins pass on hori¬ zontal conveyors. Drying requires from one to eight hours, depending on the character of the pelt. After the drying treatment, oil is usually placed on the leather, and the skins are put in a tramping machine. The addition of oil im¬ proves the softness and flexibility of the pelt and increases its resistance to water. The next step is the “staking” process, in which the skins are drawn and worked '‘over the edge of a dull blade. The leather becomes soft and flexible, and the skins are stretched to give the greatest possible surface to the furs. Stretching machines are being intro¬ duced for the cased skins with which one man may handle up to 6,000 skins per day. The fur is then combed to straighten out the hair, and beaten to give it beauty and lustre. Machinery has been installed in some plants to carry out this work. The skins are again put through the drum process with sav/dust to be thoroughly cleaned and polished. After the drum process, “caging” is repeated to remove the sawdust. Finally, some of the fine furs are put through a process in which the longer top hairs are cut out leaving the soft under-fur. The work is done to an increasing extent
‘Skins which improve on being worked in the length, such as skunk, mink, and kolinsky, are roped in the wet state after tanning. They are drawn across a rope which binds the hairs more closely together, makes the skin longer and narrower, and gives the fur a better appearance.
108
The Fur-Trade of Canada
by unhairing machinery. Cheaper furs are unhaired by cutting the fur and the hair to the same level. Other methods include a variation of the very old device of warming the skins to a high temperature, placing them on an “unhairing block”, and drawing out the top hairs by the roots. With these final changes the fur is prepared for the dyeing process.
The effect of the pressure of supply on the dressing in¬ dustry has been shown in the increasing use of machinery adapted to handling larger quantities of skins. T he changes in the dyeing industry have been no less pronounced. Not only have larger quantities of furs necessitated the develop¬ ment of improved methods of dyeing, but the increasing supply of cheaper furs has stimulated a demand for methods of improving the appearance of these furs as imitations of the more expensive varieties. In fact, improved methods of dyeing have greatly widened the market for cheaper furs.
The processes involved in dyeing are as complicated as those in dressing. The first process in the preparation of the hair or fur dyeing is known as “killing”. No conclusive explanation has been given of the character of this process. It is held by some authorities1 that the surface of the natural hair is covered to a varying extent “with a fine coat of fatty material which renders the hair more or less impervious to dye solutions.” The application of dye to natural furs produces varying results depending on the part of the hair to which it is applied, the top-hair or under-hair, the character of the hair, depending on the animal and on the part of the animal from which it is taken, and on various other factors. The process of “killing” is that of removing the external covering by the use of . various chemical alkalis, such as ammonia, soda ash, caustic soda, and caustic lime. The characteristics of various furs determine the chemicals used and the method of treatment. The problem involved in the treatment of all furs arises from the different reactions of the leather and of the hair to chemical solutions. The leather must be oiled, preferably with “an inert mineral
xSee W. E. Austin, op. cit., chap. X, passim.
The Manufacture of Furs
109
oil”, to prevent reactions from alkalis