an
m
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST
SECOND
THIRD
FOURTH
FIFTH
SIXTH
SEVENTH
EIGHTH
NINTH
TENTH
ELEVENTH
edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771-
ten 1777—1784.
eighteen 1788—1797.
twenty 1801 — 1810.
twenty 1815—1817.
twenty 1823 — 1824.
twenty-one 1830 — 1842.
twenty-two 1853 — 1860.
twenty-five 1875—1889. ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.
published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911*
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention
by THE CHANCELLOR. MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rtfhts reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XIII
HARMONY to HURSTMONCEAUX
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street IQIO
•E3
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. E. G.* REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D. [
Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and J Harocu i • ,\
the Board of Philosophy, London University. Author of Studies in the Inner Life ] resy <* rart>- of Jesus, &c.
A. D. HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. J Hogarth.
See the biographical article, DOBSON, H. A. I
A. E. T. W. ALFRED EDWARD THOMAS WATSON. f w ., , .
Editor of the Badminton Library and Badminton Magazine. Formerly Editor J „ R K&cmS (tn part); of the Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News. Author of The Racing World and ] Hunting. its Inhabitants; &c.
A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. J Hugo victor
See the biographical article, SWINBURNE, A. C. I
A. Cy. ARTHUR ERNEST COWLEY, M.A., LITT.D. f Hebrew Language;
Sub-Librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College. \ Hebrew Literature.
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. r Heath, Nicholas;
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls I Henry VIII. of England* College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- H rfnnn p- "u 1901. Lothian Prizeman (Oxford), 1892, Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of England no°Pel> B'snop; under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. I Humphrey, Lawrence.
A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. / Hofmann, Melchior;
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. I Hotman.
A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.D. , LITT.D., LL.D. Humboldt Karl W Von
See the biographical article, SAYCE, A. H. \
A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. f ~ _
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ Hormuz (tn part).
A. J. H. ALFRED J. HIPKINS, F.S.A. (1826-1903). ,
Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of the Royal College of Music, London. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition, 1885; oM Harp (in part). the Vienna Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Author of Musical I Instruments ; &c.
A. L. ANDREW LANG. f Hauntings.
See the biographical article, LANG, ANDREW. I
A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE.
See the biographical article, CLERKE, A. M.
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.
See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFRED.
Herschel, Sir F. W. (in part) ; Herschel, Sir J. F. W.
(in part).
Hevelius; Hipparchus; Horroeks; Huggins; Humboldt.
Harpy; Harrier; Hawfinch; Hawk; Heron; Hoactzin; Honeyeater; Honey Guide;
Hoopoe; Hornbill; . Humming-Bird. A. SI. ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.P. r
Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of Industrial Efficiency; J Housing. The London Water Supply; Drink, Temperance and Legislation.
A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f Henry IV.: Roman Emperor;
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. •< Hide; Hohenzollern;
[Honorius II.; Anti-Pope.
A. W. W. ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D. f _
See the biographical article, WARD, A. W. \ Hrosvitna.
C. A. M. F. CHARLES AUGUSTUS MAUDE FENNELL, M.A., LITT.D. ["
Formerly Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge. Editor of Pindar's Odes and Frag- -I Hercules. mints ; and of the Stanford Dictionary of A nglicised Words and Phrases.
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume.
V
VI
C. B.« C. El.
C. F. A. C. H. Ha. C. J. L.
C. L. K.
C. Mo. C. P.
C. Pf.
C. R. B.
C. S.
C. W. W.
D. B. M. D. F. T.
D. Gi.
D. G. H.
D. H.
D. Mn.
D. S.*
E. C. B. E. D. B.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
CHARLES BEMONT, Lirr.D. (Oxon.). jHavet;
See the biographical article, BEMONT, C. I Hozier.
SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., C.B, M.A., LL.D., D^C.L. (
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Hissar (in part),
Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East -4 Hungary: Language;
Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; and Consul-General Huns.
for German East Africa, 1900-1904.
CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.
Hohenlohe (in part).
Member 1 Honorius II., III., IV.
CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City, of the American Historical Association.
SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D. (Edin.).
Secretary Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of King s College, J _
London. Secretary to Government of India, Home Department, 1889-1894. 1 Hmdostam Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of Translations of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c.
CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S., F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor of Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London.
WILLIAM COSMO MONKHOUSE.
See the biographical article, MONKHOUSE, W. C.
Henry IV., V., VI.:
REV. CHARLES PRITCHARD, M.A.
See the biographical article, PRITCHARD, CHARLES.
| Hunt, W. Holman.
f Hersehel, Sir F. W.
(in part);
I Hersehel, Sir J. F. W. L (in part).
CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES-L.
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. of Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lnr.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. Author of Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c.
CARL SCHTJRZ, LL.D.
See the biographical article, SCHURZ, CARL.
SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907).
Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of Lord Clive; &c.
DAVID BINNING MONRO, M.A., Lrrr.D.
See the biographical article, MONRO, DAVID BINNING.
Author j Hunald.
Hayton; Henry the Navigator.
| Hayes,
Rutherford B.
Hierapolis (in part).
Homer
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The -I Harmony. Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. (_
SIR
DAVID GILL, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., D.Sc.
H.M. Astronomer at Cape of Good Hope, 1879-1907. Served in Geodetic Survey
of Egypt, and on the expedition to Ascension Island to determine the Solar J Heliometer.
Parallax by observations of Mars. Directed Geodetic Survey of Natal, Cape Colony i
and Rhodesia. Author of Geodetic Survey of South Africa; Catalogues of Stars for
the Equinoxes (1850, 1860, 1885, 1890, 1900); &c.
DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c.
Author of Short History of the Royal
REV. PUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of Constructive Congregational Ideals; &c.
DAVID SHARP, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.Z.S.
Editor of the Zoological Record. Formerly Curator of Museum of Zoology, Univer- sity of Cambridge. President of Entomological Society of London. Author of " Insecta " (Cambridge Natural History); &c.
RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.Lrrr.
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius " in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi.
EDWIN DAMPIER BRICKWOOD. Author of Boat-Racing ; &c.
• Heraclea (in part); Hierapolis (in part); Hittites; Horus.
f Heyn; Hood, Viscount; "I Howe, Earl; Humour.
f Henderson, Alexander (_ (in part).
f Hexapoda (in part).
f Hieronymites; | Hilarion, Saint.
f Horse: History; \Horse-Racing (in part).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vii
E. D. Bu. EDWARD DUNDAS BUTLER.
Formerly Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. Foreign J * ungary: Literature Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Author of Hungarian Poems and (in part). Fables for English Readers ; &c.
E. E. S. ERNEST EDWARD SIKES, M.A. f
Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer, St John's College, Cambridge. Newton Student at J Hephaestus; Athens, 1890. Editor of the Prometheus Vinctus of Aeschylus, and of The Homeric 1 Hera; Hermes. Hymns.
E. F. S. EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. C
Assistant-Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of J Hiroshige;
Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects. Joint-editor 1 Hokusai of Bell's " Cathedral Series. I
E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. J Heroic Romances;
See the biographical article, GOSSE, EDMUND, W. Heroic Verse;
I Herrick; Holberg.
Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.Lirr. (Oxon.), LL.D. f
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte S Hormizd. des Alterthums ; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens ; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme. {,
E. M. W. REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A. J Herodotus (;*, *»ri\
Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. I
E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, I Heart: Sttreerv Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Examiner H wprnja in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. [
E. Pr. EDGAR PRESTAGE. f
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature at the University of Manchester. Com- I Herculano de Carvalho e mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon | Araiyo. Royal Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society. I
E. Re.* EMIL REICH, Doc. JURIS., F.R.HisT.S. /Huiwarv- m*rni,,r, (;*, *n,t
Author of Hungarian Literature ; History of Civilization ; &c. \ * 'Dgary ' Llterature (™ P«
E. R. B. EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. f
New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus; Jerusalem under the High 1 Hellenism. Priests. I
F. B. FELICE BARNABEI, LITT.D.
Formerly Director of Museum of Antiquities at Rome. Author of archaeological papers in Italian reviews and in the Athenaeum.
F. C. C. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. (Giessen). f
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. \ Holy Water. Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magi? and Morals; &c. {
F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. f Heruli.
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. \
F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. f
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer oirj Heart- A t Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. 1 Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. L
F. G. S. F. G. STEPHENS. f
Formerly art critic of the Athenaeum. Author of Artists at Home; George Cruik- I jjoj] Frank.
shank; Memorials of W. Mulready; French and Flemish Pictures; Sir E. Landseer;\ T. C. Hook, R.A.;&c.
F. H. B. FRANCIS HENRY BUTLER, M.A. f Honey; Hunter, John;
Worcester College, Oxford. Associate of the Royal School of Mines. \ Hunter, William.
F. LL G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. r Heliopolis;
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey! iorrnec TVi«mo<ri<:tii<:' and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial 1 flerl German Archaeological Institute. I Horus.
F. 0. B. FREDERICK ORPEN BOWER, D.Sc., F.R.S. r
Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow. Author of Practical J Hofmeister. Botany for Beginners.
F. Px. FRANK PUAUX. r
President of the Societe de 1'Histoire du Protestantisme francais. Author of J _ ,
Les Precurseurs francais de la tolerance ; Histoire de I' etablissement des protestants l HUguenoiS. fran$ais en Suede; L'Eglise reformee de France; &c.
G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E. PH.D., D.Lrrr.
Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873—1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey
of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of -| Hindustani.
the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of
The Languages of India ; &c.
G. C. R. GEORGE GROOM ROBERTSON M.A. J Hobbes Thomas (in part).
See the biographical article, ROBERTSON, G. C. \
G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D. f Hilliard Lawrence*
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard J '. 'U-CIH_
Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of new edition 1 ira> w
of Bryan's Dictionary of Printers and Engravers. [ Humphry, Ozias.
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
0. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. f
Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast. Author of The\ Henryson. Days of James IV.; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots; &c.
G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. f Holland: History.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. J Holland: County and
Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign Member, Netherlands Associa- 1
tion of Literature. Province of.
G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. f
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. President of the! * rniptera; Association of Economic Biologists. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Author] Hexapoda (in part). of Insects: their Structure and Life; &c. '
G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER.
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas for the Forests for the H Hundred. Selden Society. L
G. K. GUSTAV KRUGER. f „=__„,„,,
Professor of Church History in the University of Giessen. Author of Das'] llPP0'ylus- Papsitum; &c.
G. R. REV. GEORGE RAWLINSON, M.A. f Herodotus (in part).
See the biographical article, RAWLINSON, GEORGE. I
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. f Hasan-ul-Basn£
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old 1 Hassan ibn Thablt; Testament Histony at Mansfield College, Oxford. [ Hisham ibn al-Kalbi.
H. LORD HOUGHTON. /Hood, Thomas.
See the biographical article, HOUGHTON, IST BARON.
H. Br. HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., PH.D. J
Joint-editor of the New English Dictionary (Oxford). Fellow of the British Academy. ] Holland.
Author of The Story of the Goths; The Making of English; &c. H. Bt. SIR HENRY BURDETT, K.C.B., K.C.V.O. f
Founder and Editor of The Hospital. Formerly Superintendent of the Queen's J Hospital.
Hospital, Birmingham, and the Seamen's Hospital, Greenwich. Author of 1
Hospitals and Asylums of the World; &c.
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition^ Howe' Samuel Gndley. of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition.
H. De. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. f
Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecta Bollandianai ena> 5t» * ert» st> and A eta sanctorum.
H. L. HENRI LABROSSE. f Hugh of St Cher.
Assistant Librarian at the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. iOfficer of the Academy. L
H. L. C. HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, F.R.S., LL.D. J
Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, Condon. Formerly Professor of "l Heat. Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London. I
H. M. V. HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S.A. [ Henry, Stuart (Cardinal
Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medici Popes; 1 York) The Las: Stuart Queen.
H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f Henry L» IL' IIL:
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, 1 °f England. _ 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. [ Henry of Huntingdon.
H. W. R.* REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. I"
Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, J Hosea (in part).
Oxford, IQOI. Author of Hebrew />-""'•-'•—- -'- D-I-I..'...- >„ «„.,;,•„„ ^ „<;..„>,„; — i
(in Mansfield College Essays) ; &c. H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED.
Correspondent of The Times at Vienna. Correspondent of The Times at Rome, *j Humbert, King.
1897-1902.-
H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. f Hormuz (in part);
See the biographical article, YuLE/-SlR H. |_ Hsiian Tsang (in part).
1. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f Hasdai ibn Shaprut;
Reader in Talmudic "and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J Herzl'
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short \ ,,.L c-mcnn n
History of Jewish literature ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism ; &c. I H rscn' aar
J. A. C. SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G. /Hnhhpma- Hnlhcin
See the biographical article, CROWE, SIR J. A. I H
J. A. R. VERY REV. JOSEPH ARMITAGE ROBINSON, D.D. f
Dean of Westminster. Fellow of the British Academy. Hon. Fellow of Christ's
College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, and Norris- J. Hippolytus, The Canons Of. ian 'Professor of Divinity in the University. Author of Some Thoughts on the Incarnation; &c.
J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. f
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's J Heating.
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of 1 Junior Engineers.
Oxford, 15)01. ^Author^of Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology^
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix
J. B. T. SIR JOHN BATTY TUKE, M.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), D.Sc., LL.D. f
President of the Neurological Society of the United Kingdom. Medical Director J «,„„
of New SaughtoA Hall Asylum, Edinburgh. M.P. for the Universities of Edinburgh 1 M'PP°crates.
and St Andrews, 1900-1910. (_
J. Da. REV. JAMES DAVIES, M.A. (1820-1883). f
Formerly Head Master of Ludlow Grammar School and Prebendary of Hereford J D j / Cathedral. Translated classical authors for Bohn's " Classical Library." Author 1 Hesloa U» part). of volumes in Collins's Ancient Classics for English Readers.
J. E. H. JULIUS EGGELING, PH.D. f
Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology, University of Edinburgh. *! Hinduism. Formerly Secretary and Librarian to Royal Asiatic Society.
J. F. F. JOHN FAITHFULL FLEET, C.I.E. f
Commissioner of Central and Southern Divisions of Bombay, 1891-1897. Author •{ Hindu Chronology.
of Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings ; &c.
J. F. H. B. SIR JOHN FRANCIS HARPIN BROADBENT, BART., M.A., M.D. r
Physician to Out-Patients, St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Hampstead n t. „
General Hospital. Assistant Physician to the London Fever Hospital. Author) e8rl> Heart Disease.
of Heart Disease and Aneurysm; &c.
J. G.* REV. JAMES Gow, M.A., LITT.D. /-
Head Master of Westminster School. Fellow of King's College, London. Formerly I •»
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of Horace's Odes and Satires. Author 1 Horace (w part).
of A Companion to the School Classics; &c.
J. Ga. JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B. r
See the biographical article, GAIRDNER, J. \ Henry VII.: of England.
J. G. M. JOHN GRAY MCKENDRICK, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. (Edin.) f „
Emeritus Professor of Physiology at the University of Glasgow. Author of Life -| f in Motion ; Life of Helmholtz ; &c. \ Helmholtz.
J. G. R. JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A. , PH.D. [Heine (in part);
Professor of German at the University of London. Formerly Lecturer on the English -| Hildebrand Lay of- Language, Strassburg University. Author of History of German Literature; &c. Hoffmann *E T W
J. Hn. JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. f Hecker, F. F. K.;
Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of- Hertzberg Count Von' Das Rheinland unter der franzosischen Herrschaft. Hormavr
J. H. A. H. JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. /-
Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. \ Herod; Herodians.
J. H. F. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. r
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. -j Herald; Hesiod (in part).
J. H. Mu. JOHN HENRY MUIRHEAD, M.A., LL.D. /•
Professor of Philosophy in the University of Birmingham. Author of Elements \ HeSe!: Hegelianism in of Ethics; Philosophy and Life; &c. Editor of Library of Philosophy. 1 England.
3. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). r
Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage andJ Here ward. Pedigree.
3. J. F. REV. JAMES J. Fox. (
St Thomas's College, Brookland, D.C., U.S.A. \ Hecker, I. T.
J. K. L. SIR JOHN KNOX LAUGHTON, M.A., LITT.D. r
Professor of Modern History, King's College, London, Secretary of the Navy Records Society. Served in the Baltic, 1854-1855; in China, 1856-1850. Honorary Tr j Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow, King's College, London. ] Hood of Author of Physical Geography in its Relation to the Prevailing Winds and Currents; Studies in Naval History; Sea Fights and Adventures; &c.
J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. r
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London J Heraclitus;
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. 1 Hume, David (in part).
3. P.-B. JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. r
Editor of the Guardian (London). •! Hepplewhite.
J. P. Pe. REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. r
Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in
the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to J Hillah; Hit.
Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the \
Euphrates.
3. S. Co. JAMES SUTHERLAND COTTON, M.A.
Editor of The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Hon. Secretary of the Egyptian Explora- tion Fund. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Queen's College, Oxford. Author 1 Hastings, Warren. of India in the " Citizen " Series; &c.
J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S.
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in J Homfels.
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby ' Medallist of the Geological Society of London. L
J. T. Be. JOHN T. BEALBY.
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical \ Hissar (in part). Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia, and Tibet; &c. \_
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. f
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow J Op™,-,,,, of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in'the 1 University of Edinburgh and Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. I
J. T. Mo. JOHN TORREY MORSE, Jr. /
Author of The Life and Letters of Oliver Wendell Holmes. \ Uo™es, Oliver Wendell.
J. T. S.* JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. f
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. \
J. V.* JULES VIARD. f
Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public Instruction. Author T Hundred Years' War. of La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois ; &c. I
J. V. B. JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews). fHphrPW<: PnktiA tn «,».
Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic \ '.
Age; &c. L Hennas, Shepherd of.
J. Ws. JOHN WEATHERS, F.R.H.S. f „.„
Lecturer on Horticulture to the Middlesex Countv Council. Author of Practical\
Guide to Garden Plants; French Market Gardening; &c. I Horticulture U« part).
J. W.* JAMES WARD, D.Sc., LL.D. C
Professor^of Mental Philosophy and Logic in the University of Cambridge. Fellow J „
of Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of the 1 HerDart.
New York Academy of Sciences. I
J. W. F. J. WALTER FERRIER. r
Translated George Eliot and Judaism from the German of Kaufmann. Author of -\ Heine (in tart) Mottiscliffe.
J. W. Fo. THE HON. JOHN WATSON FOSTER, A.M., LL.D. ("
Professor of American Diplomatics, George Washington University, Washington, -j Harrison, Benjamin. U.S.A. Formerly U.S. Secretary of State. Author of Diplomatic Memoirs; &c. I
K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. f Harp ,(i* parJ} '
Editor of The Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the \ mrP-Lute; Harpsichord; Orchestra. Holtztrompete;
L Horn; Hurdy-Gurdy.
L. H. B. LIBERTY HYDE BAILEY, LL.D. f H0rtif nitiirc- A
Director of the College of Agriculture, Cornell University Chairman of Roosevelt 1 Commission on Country Life. I CofcWMf (in part).
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. r „
Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of I Harmotome; Hemimorphlte; Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralo- 1 Heulandite; Hornblende; gical Magazine. ^ Humite.
L. W. LDCIEN WOLF.
Vice-President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Formerly President ~] Hirsch, Baron, of the Society. Joint-editor of the Bibliotheca Anglo-judaica. I
M. G. MOSES CASTER, Pn.D. (Leipzig).
Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine -\ Hasdeu Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folk lore Society of England. Vice-President Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature; &c. [
M. Ha. MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S.
Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of " Protozoa " in Cam- •] Heliozoa. bridge Natural History; and papers for various scientific journals.
M. H. C. MONTAGUE HUGHES CRACKANTHORPE, K.C., D.C.L.
President of the Eugenics Education Society. Honorary Fellow, St John's College,
Oxford. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Formerly Member of the General Council of 1 HerSChell 1st Baron, the Bar and of the Council of Legal Education, and Standing Counsel to the Univer- sity of Oxford.
M. N. T. MARCUS NIEHBUR TOD, M.A. f
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. -I Helots. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.
M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI. C
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham \ Heraclius. University, 1905-1908.
M. T. M. MAXWELL T. MASTERS, M.D., F.R.S. (1833-1907). r
Formerly Editor of Gardeners' Chronicle; and Lectureron Botany, St George's Hos- HnrtinnHnro (• t\
pital, London. Author of Plant Life; Botany for Beginners; and numerous mono- 1 {ln part>-
graphs in botanical works.
N. D. M. NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D. f Henry, Patrick;
Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province. J\ Homestead and Exemption
[ Laws.
0. Ba. OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f Heraldry;
Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the J Herbert: family; Honourable Society of the Baronetage. Howard: family
0. Br. OSCAR BRILIANT. f Hungary: Geography
\ and Statistics.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi
0. C. W. REV. OWEN CHARLES WHITEHOUSE, M.A., D.D. [
Christ's College, Cambridge. Professor of Hebrew, Biblical Exegesis and Theology, i Hebrew Religion. and Theological Tutor, Cheshunt College, Cambridge.
P. A. PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. [ Henry of Lausanne;
Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole pratique des hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, J U,IO.K „• c*
Paris. Author of Les Ue.es morales chez les heterodoxes Latines au debut du XIII" \
stick. I Humiliate.
P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LLD.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- Hpmiphnr- paratiye Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. ™ Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. Author of Outlines of \ "^realty. Biology; &c.
P. C. Y.
PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. -f Hollo*
Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England. \ 6S>
P. H. PETER HENDERSON (1823-1800). _..-_„. f Horticulture: American
Formerly Horticulturist, Jersey City and New York. Author of Gardening for~\ r , , /• Profit; Garden and Farm Topics. I Caltndar. (tit part).
P. H. P.-S. PHILIP HENRY PYE-SMITH, M.D., F.R.S. f
Consulting Physician to Guy's Hospital, London. Formerly Vice-Chancellor of the -j Harvey, William. University of London. Joint-author of A Text Book of Medicine; &c. I
P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. f
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly I TT|IM«I«II«. r- ;
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 * alaya' «•*** Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. I
R. A.* ROBERT ANCHEL f Herault de s6cneUes.
Archivist to the Department de 1 Eure. L
R. Ad. ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D. f „ _
See the biographical article, ADAMSON, R. \ Hume» David WB part).
R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. ("
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- -! Hebron; Hor, Mt. tion Fund.
R. A. W. ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E.
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimi- j „ _. „ . tation, and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served with Tirah Expeditionary nasa, fcl; Hejaz. Force, 1897-1898; Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895; &c.
R. H. S. RICHARD HENRY STODDARD. f Hawthorne Nathaniel
See the biographical article, STODDARD, RICHARD HENRY. |_ a
R. L P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. f Harvester; Hibernation.
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \_
R. J. M. RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. ("
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's Hely-Hutehinson. Gazette, London.
R. J. S. HON. ROBERT JOHN STRUTT, M.A., F.R.S. C
Professor of Physics in the Imperial College of Science and Technology, South -J Helium. Kensington. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
R. K. D. SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. f
Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum,] HsQan Tsang (in tart). and Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and ] Literature of China; &c.
R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. [ Hedgehog;
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J Hippopotamus'
Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer ) „
of all Lands ; The Game Animals of Africa ; &c. L Horse W» *»*) J Howler.
R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f Hopken; Horn, A. B., Count;
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia, the Hunparv HVc/n™ (i* Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs J. J ""g* „" 1611-172$; Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 myaai, janos, toi796;&c. I Hunyadi, Laszl6.
Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliotheque I Hinemar Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens ; Recueil |
R. Po. RENE POUPARDIN, D.-ES-L.
Secretary of the Ecole
Nationale, Paris. Author 01 Lie noyavme ue .rruverace suu* *cj t^urunngicns ; i^ecueit i des chartes de Saint-Germain ; &c. L
R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. f
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past 1 President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, -j House. London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.
R. S. C. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.). r
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J 'Cl;
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville 1 Hirpini. and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. L
R. S. T. RALPH STOCKMAN TARR. / Hudson River.
Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University. L
xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
R. W. ROBERT WALLACE, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.L.S.
Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh University, and Carton
Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C.,J Horse (in tart)
Cirencester, 1882-1885. Author of Farm Live Stock of Great Britain; The Agricul-^
ture and Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand; Farming Industries of Cape
Colony; &c.
S. F. B. SPENCER FULLERTON BAIRD, LL.D. f n
See the biographical article, BAIRD, S. F. \ M inry' JosePn-
S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, H t- fc. Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and J * Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscrip- Hoshea. / ions ; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi ; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.
T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. f Holiday.
Trinity College, Dublin. I
T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lrrr. (Oxon.). f
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ I Heraelea (in part) ; Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of J Hispellum. the Imperial German Archaeological Institute.
T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. ("
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council I gieh Seas of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems | of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. I
T. B.* THOMAS BROWN. f Hosierv
Incorporated Weaving, Dyeing and Printing College, Glasgow. \
T. F. H. T. F. HENDERSON. f HAftlr__
Author of The Casket Letters and Mary Queen of Scots; Life of Robert Burns; &c. \ a 'er'
T. Gi. THOMAS GILRAY M.A. f Henderson, Alexander
Formerly Professoi of Modern History and English Literature, University College, J / . Dundee. [ (ln Part>-
T. H. H.* COLONEL SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., HON. D.Sc. r Helmund- Herat-
Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S., J London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's] * Award; India; Tibet; &c. I Hindu Kush.
T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., D.Sc. f
Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- H Hero 01 Alexandria, bridge.
T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. r
Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, J Hayward, Abraham; University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor H jjUKjjes Thomas of Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; joint-author of Bookman History of English Literature; &c.
T. Wo. THOMAS WOODHOUSE. J" Hose-Pine
Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee. \
T. W. A. THOMAS WILLIAM ALLEN, M.A. / D_mo, /• A
Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford. Joint-editor of The Homeric Hymns. \a r Un Part>-
W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. r Hautes Alpes-
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's I Po_oavnio-
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature 1
and in History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1889. I Herzog, Hans.
,, . rHohenlohe (in part).
W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. „ , AiiianpA Th«-
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, J * lce> l
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. Hononus I.;
L Hungary: History (in part).
W. Ba. WILLIAM BACKER, D.Pn. f TTJII.I
Professor of Biblical Studies at the Rabbinical Seminary, Budapest. |_
W. Fr. WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D. (d. 1907). c „
Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of Edinburgh, and J I Agricultural Correspondent of The Times. [ Horse (in part).
W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. r
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law at King's College, -I Homicide. London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (2yd ed.).
W. G. H. WALTER GEORGE HEADLAM (1866-1908).
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Editor of Herodas. Translator of the plays J Herodas. of Aeschylus.
W. H. F. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. f _ , . .
See the biographical article, FLOWER, SIR W. H. \ * ''
W. H. Ha. WILLIAM HENRY HADOW, M.A., Mus.Doc. f
Principal, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Formerly Fellow and Tutor J of Worcester College, Oxford. Member of Council, Royal College of Music. Editor ] of Oxford History of Music. Author of Studies in Modern Music; &c. L
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Xlll
W. L. G.
W. M. R. W. P. J.
W. R. Nl. W. R. S. W. R. S.-R.
W. R. W.
W. T. H.
W. W. W. Wr.
W. Y. S.
4 Haydon, Benjamin Robert
WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A.
Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in J Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council, Colonial | Series; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration).
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article, ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.
WILLIAM PRICE JAMES.
University College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. High Bailiff of County Courts, -\ Henley, W. E. Cardiff. Author of Romantic Professions ; &c.
SIR WILLIAM ROBERTSON NICOLL, LL.D.
See the biographical article, NICOLL, SIR W. R.
WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
See the biographical article, SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.
WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN-RALSTON, M.A. f
Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. Author of Russian -\ Hertzen. Folk Tales ;&c.
WILLIAM ROBERT WORTHINGTON WILLIAMS, F.L.S. f
Superintendent of London County Council Botany Centre.
| Harris, Thomas Lake. Hosea (in part).
in Botany, Birkbeck College (University of London). Association.
Assistant Lecturer
entre. Assistant Lecturer J HnrficiiltnrA (i~ A^.rt Member of the Geologists' 1 * ortlculture «• Part).
Homoeopathy.
WILLIAM TOD HELMUTH, M.D., LL.D. (d. 1901).
Formerly Professor of Surgery and Dean of the Homoeopathic and Medical College and Hospital; New York. President of the Collins State Homoeopathic Hospital. Sometime' President of the American Institute of Homoeopathy and the New York State Homoeopathic Medical Society. Author of Treatise on Diphtheria; System of Surgery ; &c.
WILLIAM WALLACE, LL.D.
See the biographical article, WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897).
WILLISTON WALKER, PH.D., D.D.
Professor of Church History, Yale University. Author of History of the Congrega- ~\ Hopkins, Samuel. tional Churches in the United States ; The Reformation ; John Calvin ; &c.
WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D.
See the biographical article, SELLAR, W. Y.
Hegel (in part).
(
-I Horace (in part).
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Harrow.
Hartford.
Hartlepool.
Harvard University.
Harz Mountains.
Hat.
Havana.
Hawaii.
Hazel.
Health.
Heath.
Hebrides, The.
Heidelberg Catechism.
Heligoland.
Heliostat.
Hellebore.
Helmet.
Hemp.
Herbarium.
Herefordshire.
Hero.
Hertfordshire.
Hesse.
Hesse-Cassel.
Hesse-Darmstadt.
High Place.
Highway.
Hockey.
Holly.
Homily.
Honduras.
Hong-Kong.
Hostage.
Hottentots.
Household, Royal.
Hudson's Bay Company.
Huntingdonshire.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XIII
HARMONY (Gr. appovia, a concord of musical sounds, apfio^av to join; apuoviKr] (sc. rexy-q) meant the science or art of music, juowitcq being of wider significance), a combination of parts so that the effect should be aesthetically pleasing. In its earliest sense in English it is applied, in music, to a pleasing combination of musical sounds, but technically it is confined to the science of the combination of sounds of different pitch.
I. Concord and Discord. — By means of harmony modern music has attained the dignity of an independent art. In ancient times, as at the present day among nations that have not come under the influence of European music, the harmonic sense was, if not altogether absent, at all events so obscure and undeveloped as to have no organizing power in the art. The formation by the Greeks of a scale substantially the same as that which has received our harmonic system shows a latent harmonic sense, but shows it in a form which positively excludes harmony as an artistic principle. The Greek perception of certain successions of sounds as concordant rests on a principle identifiable with the scientific basis of concord in simultaneous sounds. But the Greeks did not conceive of musical simultaneity as consisting of anything but identical sounds; and when they developed the practice of magadizing — i.e. singing in octaves — they did so because, while the difference between high and low voices was a source of pleasure, a note and its octave were then, as now, perceived to be in a certain sense identical. We will now start from this fundamental identity of the octave, and with it trace the genesis of other concords and discords; bearing in mind that the history of harmony is the history of artistic instincts and not a series of progressive scientific theories.
The unisonous quality of octaves is easily explained when we examine the " harmonic series " of upper partials (see SOUND). Every musical sound, if of a timbre at all rich (and hence pre-eminently the human voice), contains some of these upper partials. Hence, if one voice produce a note which is an upper
Ex. i.— The notes marked * are out of
tune.
•&"
9 IO II 12
partial of another note sung at the same time by another voice, the higher voice adds nothing new to the lower but only rein- forces what is already there. Moreover, the upper partials of the
XIII. I
higher voice will also coincide with some of the lower. Thus, if a note and its octave be sung together, the upper octave is itself No. 2 in the harmonic series of the lower, No. 2 of its own series is No. 4 of the lower, and its No. 3 is No. 6, and so on. The impression of identity thus produced is so strong that we often find among people unacquainted with music a firm conviction that a man is singing in unison with a boy or an instrument when he is really singing in the octave below. And even musical people find a difficulty in realizing more than a certain brightness and richness of single tone when a violinist plays octaves per- fectly in tune and with a strong emphasis on the lower notes. Doubling in octaves therefore never was and never will be a process of harmonization.
Now if we take the case of one sound doubling another in the 1 2th, it will be seen that here, too, no real addition is made by the higher sound to the lower. The 1 2th is No. 3 of the harmonic series, No. 2 of the higher note will be No. 6 of the lower, No. 3 will be No. 9, and so on. But there is an important difference between the I2th and the octave. However much we alter the octave by transposition into other octaves, we never get anything but unison or octaves. Two notes two octaves apart are just as devoid of harmonic difference as a plain octave or unison. But, when we apply our principle of the identity of the octave to the 1 2th, we find that the removal of one of the notes by an octave may produce a combination in which there is a distinct harmonic element. If, for example, the lower note is raised by an octave so that the higher note is a fifth from it, No. 3 of the harmonic series of the higher note will not belong to the lower note at all. The sth is thus a combination of which the two notes are obviously different; and, moreover, the principle of the identity of octaves can now operate in a contrary direction and transfer this positive harmonic value of the sth to the 12th, so that we regard the i2th as a 5th plus an octave, instead of regarding the sth as a compressed 1 2th.1 At the same time, the relation between the two is quite close enough to give the sth much of the feeling of harmonic poverty and reduplication that characterizes the octave; and hence when medieval musicians
1 Musical intervals are reckoned numerically upwards along the degrees of the diatonic scales (described below). Intervals greater than an octave are called compound, and are referred to their simple forms, e.g. the I2th is a compound 5th.
HARMONY
doubled a melody in sths and octaves they believed themselves to be doing no more than extending and diversifying the means by which a melody might be sung in unison by different voices. How they came to prefer for this purpose the 4th to the sth seems puzzling when we consider that the 4th does not appear as a fundamental interval in the harmonic series until that series has passed beyond that part of it that maintains any relation to our musical ideas. But it was of course certain that they obtained the 4th as the inversion of the sth; and it is at least possible that the singers of lower voices found a peculiar pleasure in singing below higher voices in a position which they felt harmonically as that of a top part. That is to say, a bass, in singing a fourth below a tenor, would take pleasure in doubling in the octave an alto singing normally a 5th above the tenor.1 This should also, perhaps, be taken in connexion with the fact that the interval of the downward 4th is in melody the earliest that became settled. And it is worth noticing that, in any singing-class where polyphonic music is sung, there is a marked tendency among the more timid members to find their way into their part by a gentle humming which is generally a 4th below the nearest steady singers.
The limited compass of voices soon caused modifications in the medieval parallelisms of 4ths and sths, and the introduction of independent ornaments into one or more of the voices increased to an extent which drew attention to other intervals. It was long, however, before the true criterion of concord and discord was attained; and at first the notion of concord was purely acoustic, that is to say, the ear was sensitive only to the difference in roughness and smoothness between combinations in them- selves. And even the modern researches of Helmholtz fail to represent classical and modern harmony, in so far as the pheno- mena of beats are quite independent of the contrapuntal nature of concord and discord which depends upon the melodic intelligi- bility of the motion of the parts. Beats give rise to a strong physical sense of discord akin to the painfulness of a flickering light (see SOUND). Accordingly, in the earliest experiments in harmony, the ear, in the absence of other criteria, attached much more importance to the purely acoustic roughness of beats than our ears under the experience of modern music. This, and the circumstance that the imperfect concords2 (the 3rds and 6ths) long remained out of tune owing to the incom- pleteness of the Pythagorean system of harmonic ratios, sufficiently explain the medieval treatment of these combinations as discords differing only in degree from the harshness of 2nds and 7ths. In the earliest attempts at really contrapuntal writing (the astonishing i3th- and I4th- century motets, in which voices are made to sing different melodies at once, with what seems to modern ears a total disregard of sound and sense) we find that the method consists in a kind of rough-hewing by which the concords of the octave, sth and 4th are provided at most of the strong accents, while the rest of the harmony is left to take care of itself. As the art advanced the imperfect concords began to be felt as different from the discords; but as their true nature appeared it brought with it such an increased sense of the harmonic poverty of octaves, sths and 4ths, as ended in a complete inversion of the earliest rules of harmony.
The harmonic system of the later isth century, which cul- minated in the " golden age " of the 16th-century polyphony, may be described as follows: Imagine a flux of simultaneous inde- pendent melodies, so ordered as to form an artistic texture based not only on the variety of the melodies themselves, but also upon gradations between points of repose and points in which the roughness of sound is rendered interesting and beautiful by means of the clearness with which the melodic sense in each part indicates the convergence of all towards the next point of repose. The typical point of repose owes its effect not only to the acoustic smoothness of the combination, but to the fact that it actually
1 It is at least probable that this is one of the several rather obscure reasons for the peculiar instability of the 4th in modern harmony, which is not yet satisfactorily explained.
2 The perfect concords are the octave, unison, 5th and 4th. Other diatonic combinations, whether concords or discords, are called imperfect.
consists of the essential elements present in the first five notes of the harmonic series. The major 3rd has thus in this- scheme asserted itself as a concord, and the fundamental principle of the identity of octaves produces the result that any combination of a bass note with a major 3rd and » perfect sth above it, at any distance, and with any amount of doubling, may constitute a concord available even as the final point of repose in the whole composition. And by degrees the major triad, with its major 3rd, became so familiar that a chord consisting of a bare sth, with or without an octave, was regarded rather as a skeleton triad without the 3rd than as a concord free from elements of imperfection. Again, the identity of the octave secured for the combination of a note with its minor 3rd and minor 6th a place among concords; because, whether so recognized by early theorists or not, it was certainly felt as an inversion of the major triad. The fact that its bass note is not the fundamental note (and therefore has a series of upper partials not compatible with- the higher notes) deprives it of the finality and perfection of the major triad, to which, however, its relationhsip is too near for it to be felt otherwise than as a concord. This sufficiently explains why the minor 6th ranks as a concord in music, though it is acoustically nearly Ex. 3. as rough as the discord of the minor 7th, and considerably rougher than that of the 7th note of the harmonic series, which has not become accepted in our musical system at all.
But the major triad and its inversion are not the only concords that will be produced by our flux of melodies. From time to time this flux will arrest attention by producing a combination which, while it does not appeal to the ear as being a part of the harmonic chord of nature, yet contains in itself no elements not already present in the major triad. Theorists have in vain tried to find in " nature " a combination of a note with its minor 3rd and perfect sth; and so long as harmony was treated unhistori- cally and unscientifically as an a priori theory in which every chord must needs have a " root," the minor triad, together with nearly every other harmonic principle of any complexity, remained a mystery. But the minor triad, as an artistic and not purely acoustic phenomenon, is an inevitable thing. It has the character of a concord because of our intellectual percep- tion that it contains the same elements as the major triad; but its absence of connexion with the natural harmonic series deprives it of complete finality in the simple system of 16th-century harmony, and at the same time gives it a permanent contrast with the major triad; a contrast which is acoustically intensified by the fact that, though its intervals are in themselves as con- cordant as those of the major triad, their relative position produces decidedly rough combinations of "resultant tones."
By the time cur flux of melodies had come to include the major and minor triads as concords, the notion of the independence of parts had become of such paramount importance as totally to revolutionize the medieval conception of the perfect concords. Fifths and octaves no longer formed an oasis in a desert of cacophony, but they assumed the character of concord so nearly approaching to unison that a pair of consecutive sths or octaves began to be increasingly felt as violating the independence of the parts. And thus it came about that in pure 16th-century counterpoint (as indeed at the present day whenever harmony and counterpoint are employed in their purest significance) consecutive sths and octaves are strictly forbidden. When we compare our laws of counterpoint with those of medieval discant (in which consecutive sths and octaves are the rule, while con- secutive 3rds and 6ths are strictly forbidden) we are sometimes tempted to think that the very nature of the human ear has changed. But it is now generally recognized that the process was throughout natural and inevitable, and the above account aims at showing that consecutive sths are forbidden by our harmonic system for the very reason which inculcated them in the system of the 1 2th century.
II. Tonality. — As soon as the major and minor triad and their first inversions were well-defined entities, it became evident that
HARMONY
the successions of these concords and their alternations with discord involved principles at once larger and more subtle than those of mere difference in smoothness and artificiality. Not only was a major chord (or at least its skeleton) necessary for the final point of repose in a composition, but it could not itself sound final unless the concords as well as the discords before it showed a well-defined tendency towards it. This tendency was best realized when the penultimate concord had its fundamental note at the distance of a 5th or a 4th above or below that of the final chord. When the fundamental note of the penultimate chord is a 5th above or (what is the same thing) a 4th1 below that of the final chord, we have an " authentic " or " perfect " cadence, and the relation between the two chords is very clear. While the contrast between them is well marked, they have one note in common — for the root of the penultimate chord is the 5th of the final chord; and the statement of this common note, first as an octave or unison and then as a 5th, expresses the .first facts of harmony with a force which the major 3rds of the chords can only strengthen, while it also involves in the bass that melodic interval of the 4th or the 5th which is now known
f^ j to be the germ of all melodic scales. The |p3 relation of the final note of a scale with its •=* upper 5th or lower 4th thus becomes a
fundamental fact of complex harmonic significance — that is to say, of harmony modified by melody in so far as it concerns the succession of sounds as well as their simultaneous combination. In our modern key-system the final note of the scale is called the tonic, and the 5th above or 4th below it is the dominant. (In the i6th century the term " dominant " has this meaning only in the " authentic " modes other than the Phrygian, but as an aesthetic fact it is present in all music, though the theory here given would not have been intelligible to any composers before the iSth century). Another penultimate chord asserts itself as the converse of the dominant — namely, the chord of which the root is a 5th below or a 4th above the final. This chord has not that relationship to the final which the dominant chord shows, for its fundamental note is not in the harmonic series of the final. But the fundamental note of the final chord is in its harmonic series, and in fact stands to it as the dominant stands to the final. Thus the progression from subdominant, as it is called, to tonic, or final, forms a full close known as the " plagal cadence," second only in importance to the " perfect "
f. . or " authentic cadence." In our modern EEj§E±ESii3 key-system these three chords, the tonic, the dominant and the subdominant, form
a firm harmonic centre in reference to which all other chords are grouped. The tonic is the final in which everything ultimately resolves: the dominant stands on one side of it as a chord based on the note harmonically most closely related to the tonic, and the subdominant stands on the other side as the converse and opposite of the dominant, weaker than the dominant because not directly derived from the tonic. The other triads obtainable from the notes of the scale are all minor, and of less importance; and their relationship to each other and to the tonic is most definite when they are so grouped that their basses rise and fall in 4th and sths, because they then tend to imitate the relation- ship between tonic, dominant and subdominant.
Ex.6.
Tonic. Supertonic. Mediant. Sub- Dominant. Sub- dominant. mediant.1
Here are the six common chords of the diatonic scale. The triad on the yth degree or " leading-note " (B) is a discord, and is therefore not given here.
Now, in the i6th century it was neither necessary nor desirable that chords should be grouped exclusively in this way. The relation between tonic, dominant and subdominant must necessarily appear at the final close, and in a lesser degree at
The submediant is so-called because if the subdominant is taken a 5th below the tonic, the submediant will come midway between it and the tonic, as the_ mediant comes midway between tonic and dominant.
subordinate points of repose; but, where no harmonies were dwelt on as stable and independent entities except the major and minor triads and their first inversions, a scheme in which these were confined to the illustration of their most elementary relationship would be intolerably monotonous. It is therefore neither surprising nor a sign of archaism that the tonality of modal music is from the modern point of view often very in- definite. On the contrary, the distinction between masterpieces and inferior works in the i6th century is nowhere more evident than in the expressive power of modal tonality, alike where it resembles and where it differs from modern. Nor is it too much to say that that expressive power is based on the modern sense of key, and that a description of modal tonality in terms of modern key will accurately represent the harmonic art of Palestrina and the other supreme masters, though it will have almost as little in common with 16th-century theory and inferior 16th- century practice as it has with modern custom. We must conceive modal harmony and tonality as a scheme in which voices move independently and melodiously in a scale capable of bearing the three chords of the tonic, dominant and sub- dominant, besides three other minor triads, but not under such restrictions of symmetrical rhythm and melodic design as will necessitate a confinement to schemes in which these three cardinal chords occupy a central position. The only stipulation is that the relationship of at least two cardinal chords shall appear at every full close. At other points the character and drift of the harmony is determined by quite a different principle — namely, that, the scale being conceived as indefinitely extended, the voices are agreed in selecting a particular section of it,the position of which determines not only the melodic character of each part but also the harmonic character of the whole, according to its greater or less remoteness from the scale in which major cardinal chords occupy a central position. Historically these modes were derived, with various errors and changes, from the purely melodic modes of the Greeks. Aesthetically they are systems of modern tonality adapted to conditions in which the range of harmony was the smallest possible, and the necessity for what we may conveniently call a clear and solid key-perspective incomparably slighter than that for variety within so narrow a range. We may thus regard modal harmony as an essentially modern scheme, presented to us in cross-sections of various degrees of obliquity, and modified at every close so as either to take us to a point of view in which we see the harmony sym- metrically (as in those modes2 of which the final chord is normally major, namely the Ionian, which is practically our major scale, the Mixolydian and the Lydian, which last is almost invariably turned into Ionian by the systematic flattening of its 4th degree) or else to transform the mode itself so that its own notes are flattened and sharpened into suitable final chords (as is necessary in those modes of which the triad on the final is normally minor, namely, the Dorian, Phrygian and Aeolian). In this way we may describe Mixolydian tonality as a harmonic scheme in which the keys of G major and C major are so combined that sometimes we feel that we are listening to harmony in C major that is disposed to overbalance towards the dominant, and sometimes that we are in G major with a pronounced leaning towards the subdominant. In the Dorian mode our sensations of tonality are more confused. We seem to be wandering through all the key-relationships of a minor tonic without defining anything, until at the final close the harmonies gather strength and bring us, perhaps with poetic surprise, to a close in D with a major chord. In the Phrygian mode the difficulty in forming the final close is such that classical Phrygian compositions actually end in what we feel to be a half-close, an impression which is by the great masters rendered perfectly artistic by the strong feeling that all such parts of the composition as do not owe their ex- pression to the variety and inconstancy of their harmonic drift are on the dominant of A minor.
It cannot be too strongly insisted that the expression of modal music is a permanent artistic fact. Its refinements maybe crowded out by the later tonality, in which the much greater 2 See PLAIN SONG.
4
HARMONY
Ex.?. Suspension.
No. 8. Passing Note
variety of fixed chords needs a much more rigid harmonic scheme to control it, but they can never be falsified. And when Beethoven in his last " Bagatelle " raises the 6th of a minor scale for the pleasure he takes in an unexpectedly bright major chord; or when, in the Incarnatus of his Mass in D, he makes a free use of the Dorian scale, he is actuated by precisely the same harmonic and aesthetic motives as those of the wonderful opening of Palestrina's eight-part Stabat Mater; just as in the Lydian figured chorale in his A minor Quartet he carries out the principle of harmonic variety, as produceable by an oblique melodic scale, with a thoroughness from which Palestrina himself would have shrunk. (We have noted that in 16th-century music the Lydian mode is almost invariably lonicized.)
III. Modern Harmony and Tonality. — In the harmonic system of Palestrina only two kinds of discord are possible, namely, suspensions and passing-notes. The principle of the suspension
is that while parts are moving from one concord to another one of the parts remains behind, so as to create a discord at the moment when the other parts proceed. The suspended part then goes on to its concordant note, which must lie on an adjacent (and in most cases a lower) degree of the scale. Passing-notes are produced transiently by the motion of a part up or down the scale while other parts remain stationary. The possibilities of these two devices can be worked out logically so as to produce combinations of extreme harshness. And, when combined with the rules which laid on the performers the responsibility for modifying the strict scale of the mode in order to form satis- factory closes and avoid melodic harshness, they some- times gave rise to combinations which the clearest artistic intellects of the i6th century perceived as incompatible with the modal style. For example, in a passage written thus J? ,u _ - ^ . _ F^t^ I I the singer of the lower
^ — 1 part would be obliged Ex- 9. d~ to flatten his B in
[|(g|-0t <a p_^=r[^=: = \ order to avoid the
=3 Ugiy "tritone" be- tween F and B, while the other singer would be hardly less likely on the spur of the moment to sharpen his G under the impression that he was making a close; and thus one of the most complex and characteristically modern discords, that of the augmented 6th, did trequently occur in 16th-century performances, and was not always regarded as a blunder. But if the technical principles of 16th-century discord left much to the good taste of composers and singers, they nevertheless in conjunction with that good taste severely restricted the resources of harmony; for, whatever the variety and artificiality of the discords admitted by them, they all had this in common, that every discord was transient and could only arise as a phenomenon of delay in the movement of one or more parts smoothly along the scale (" in conjunct motion ") or of a more rapid motion up and down the scale in which none but the rigorously concordant first and last notes received any emphasis. No doubt there were many licenses (such as the " changing-note ") which introduced discords by skip, or on the strong beat without preparation, but these were all as natural as they were illogical. They were artistic as intelligible accidents, precisely like those which make language idiomatic, such as " attraction of the relative " in Greek. But when Monteverde and his fellow monodists tried experi- ments with unprepared discords, they opened up possibilities far too vast to be organized by them or by the next three genera- tions. We have elsewhere compared the difference between early and modern harmony with that between classical Greek, which is absolutely literal and concrete in expression, and modern English, which is saturated with metaphors and abstractions. We may go further and say that a 16th-century discord, with its preparation and resolution, is, on a very small scale, like a simile, in which both the figure and its interpretation are given, whereas modern discord is like the metaphor, in which the figure
is a substitute for and not an addition to the plain statement. It is not surprising that the sudden opening up of the whole possibilities of modern harmony at the end of the i6th century at first produced a chaos of style.
Another feature of the harmonic revolution arose from the new habit of supporting a single voice on chords played by an instrument. This, together with the use of discords in a new sense, drew attention to the chords as things in themselves and not as moments of greater or less repose in a flux of independent melodies. This was as valuable an addition to musical thought and expression as the free use of abstract terms is in literature, but it had precisely the same dangers, and has until recent times vitiated harmonic theory and divorced it from the modest observation of the practice of great masters. When, early in the i8th century, Rameau devoted much of his best energy to the elaboration of a theory of harmony, his field of observation was a series of experiments begun in chaos and resolved, not as yet in a great art, but in a system of conventions, for the contemporary art of Bach and Handel was beyond the scope of contemporary theory. He showed great analytical genius and sense of tonality in his development of the notion of the " fundamental bass," and it is rather to his credit than otherwise that he did not emphasize the distinction between discords on the dominant and those on other degrees of the scale. But his system, with all subsequent improvements, refutations and repairs only led to that bane of 19th-century theory and source of what may be called the journalese of harmonic style, according to which every chord (no matter how obviously artificial and transient) must be regarded, so to speak, as a literal fact for which a root and a scientific connexion with the natural harmonic series must at all cost be found. Some modern theorists have, however, gone too far in denying the existence of harmonic roots altogether, and certainly it is neither scientific nor artistic to regard the coincidence of the major triad with the first five notes of the harmonic series as merely accidental. It is not likely that the dominant 7th owes all its naturalness to a resemblance to the flat 7th of the harmonic series, which is too far out of tune even to pass for an augmented 6th. But the dominant major pth certainly gains in sonorousness from its coincidence with the gth harmonic, and many cases in music could be found where the dominant 7th itself would gain from being so far flattened as to add coincidence with a natural harmonic to its musical significance as an unprepared discord (see, for example the " native wood-notes wild " of the distant huntsmen in the second act of Tristan und Isolde, where also the 9th and nth are involved, and, moreover, on horns, of which the natural scale is the harmonic series itself). If the distinction between " essential " and " unessential " discords is, in the light of history and common sense, a difference only in degree, it is thus none the less of great aesthetic importance. Arithmetic and acoustics show that in proportion as musical harmony emphasizes combinations belonging to the lower region of the harmonic series the effect will be sonorous and natural; but common sense, history and aesthetics also show that the inter- action of melody, harmony and rhythm must produce a host of combinations which acoustics alone cannot possibly explain. These facts are amply competent to explain themselves. To describe them in detail is beyond the scope of the present article, but a few examples from different periods are given at the end in musical type.
IV. The Minor Mode. — When the predecessors of Bach and Handel had succeeded in establishing a key-system able to bear the weight of free discord, that key-system took two forms, in both of which the three chords of tonic, dominant and sub- dominant occupied cardinal points. In the one form the tonic chord was natural, that is to say, major. In the other form the tonic chord was artificial, that is to say, minor. In the minor mode so firm is the position of the tonic and dominant (the dominant chord always being major)that it is no longer necessary, as in the i6th century, to conclude with a major chord, although it long remained a frequent practice, rather because of the inherent beauty and surprise of the effect than because of any
HARMONY
mere survival of ancient customs, at least where great masters are concerned. (This final major chord is known as the Tierce de Picardie.) The effect of the minor mode is thus normally plaintive because it centres round the artificial concord instead of the natural; and, though the keynote bears this minor artificial triad, the ear nevertheless has an expectation (which may be intensified into a powerful emotional effect) that the final conclusion of the harmonic scheme may brighten out into the more sonorous harmonic system of major chords. Let us once more recall those ecclesiastical modes of which the 3rd degree is normally minor. We have seen how they may be regarded as the more oblique of the various cross-sections of the 16th-century harmonic scheme. Now, the modern minor mode is too firmly rooted in its minor tonic chord for the 16th-century feeling of an oblique harmonic scheme to be of more than secondary importance, though that feeling survives, as the discussion of key-relationships will show us. But it is constantly thrust into the background by the new possibility that the minor tonic chord with its attendant minor harmonies may give place to the major system round the same tonic, and by the certainty that if any change is made at the conclusion of the work it will be upon the same tonic and not have reference to some other harmonic centre. In other words, a major and minor key on the same tonic are felt as identical in everything but expression (a point in which the Tonic Sol Fa system, as hitherto practised, with its identification of the minor key with its " relative " instead of its tonic major, shows a most unfortunate confusion of thought). The characteristics of the major and minor modes may of course be modified by many artistic considerations, and it would be as absurd to develop this account into a scheme of pigeon-holed passions as to do the same for the equally obvious and closely parallel fact that in drama a constant source of pathos is the placing of our sympathies in an oblique relation to the natural sequence of events or to the more universal issues of the subject.
V. Key-Relationships. — On the modern sense of the identity of the tonic in major and minor rests the whole distinctive character of modern harmony, and the whole key-system of the classical composers. The masters of the i6th century naturally found it necessary to make full closes much more frequently than would be desirable if the only possible close was that on the final of the mode. They therefore formed closes on other notes, but they formed them on these exactly as on a final. Thus, a close on the second degree of the Ionian mode was identical with a Dorian final close. The notes, other than the final, on which closes could be made were called modulations. And what between the three " regular modulations " (known as the dominant, mediant, and participant) and the " conceded modula- tions," of which two were generally admitted in each mode simply in the interests of variety, a composer was at liberty to form a full close on any note which did not involve too many extraneous sharps or flats for its correct accomplishment. But there was a great difference between modal and modern con- ceptions of modulation. We have said that the close on the second degree of the Ionian mode was Dorian, but such a modula- tion was not regarded as a visit paid to the Dorian mode, but merely as the formation of a momentary point of repose on the second degree of the Ionian mode. When therefore it is said that the modulations of 16th-century music are " purposeless and shifting," the criticism implies a purpose in change of key which is wholly irrelevant. The modal composers' purpose lay in purely local relationships of harmony, in various degrees of refinement which are often crowded out of the larger and more coarse-grained scheme of modern harmony, but which modern harmony is perfectly capable of employing in precisely the same sense whenever it has leisure.
Modulation, in the modern sense of the term, is a different thing. The modern sense of tonality is so firm, and modern designs so large, that it is desirable that different portions of a composition should be arranged round different harmonic centres or keys, and moreover that the relation between these keys and the primary key should be ielt, and the whole design
should at last return to the primary key, to remain there with such emphasis and proportion as shall leave upon the mind the impression that the whole is in the primary key and that the foreign keys have been as artistically grouped around it as its own local harmonies. The true principles on which keys are related proved so elastic in the hands of Beethoven that their results utterly outstripped the earlier theory which adhered desperately to the limitations of the i6th century; and so vast is the range of key which Beethoven is able to organize in a convincing scheme of relationship, that even modern theory, dazzled by the true harmonic possibilities, is apt to come to the conclusion, more lame and impotent than any ancient pedantry, that all keys are equally related. A vague conception, dubbed " the unity of the chromatic scale," is thus made to explain away the whole beauty and power of Wagner's no less than Beethoven's harmonic system. We have not space to dispute the matter here, and it must suffice to state dog- matically and statistically the classical facts of key-relationship, including those which Beethoven established as normal possi- bilities on the suggestion of Haydn, in whose works they appear as special effects.
a. Direct Relationships. — The first principle on which two keys are considered to be related is a strengthening of that which determined the so-called modulations of the 16th-century modes. Two keys are directly related when the tonic chord of the one is among the common chords of the other. Thus, D minor is related to C major because the tonic chord of D minor is the common chord on the supertonic of C (see Ex. 6). In the same way the four other related keys to C major are E minor the mediant, F major the subdominant, G major the dominant and A minor the submediant.
This last key-relationship is sometimes called the " relative " minor, partly because it is usually expressed by the same key- signature as the tonic, but probably more justifiably because it is the point of view from which to reckon the key-relationships of the minor tonic. If we take the minor scale in its " harmonic " form (i.e. the form deducible from its chords of minor tonic, minor subdominant and major dominant, without regard to the exigencies of melody in concession to which the " melodic " minor scale raises the 6th in ascent and flattens the 7th in descent), we shall find it impossible to build a common chord upon its mediant (Ex. 10). But we have seen that A minor is related to C major; EX. 10. therefore it is absurd to suppose that C major is not related to A minor. Clearly then we must deduce some of the relationships of a minor tonic as the converse of those of a major tonic. Thus we may read Ex. 6 backwards and reason as follows: A minor is the submediant of C major; therefore C major is the mediant or relative major of A minor. D minor is the supertonic of C major; therefore C major is related to D minor and may be called its flat 7th. Taking A minor as our standard key, G major is then the flat 7th to A minor. The remaining major keys (C major to E minor = F major to A minor) may be traced directly as well as conversely; and the subdominant, being minor, does not involve an appeal to the major scale at all. But with the dominant we find the curious fact that while the dominant chord of a minor key is major it is impossible to regard the major dominant key as directly related to the minor tonic, since it does not contain the minor tonic chord at all; e.g. the only chord of A in E major is A major. But the dominant minor key contains the tonic chord of the primary minor key clearly enough as subdominant, and therefore when we modulate from a minor tonic to a minor dominant we feel that we have a direct key-relationship and have not lost touch with our tonic. Thus in the minor mode modulation to the dominant key is, though frequent and necessary, a much more uphill process than in the major mode, because the naturally major dominant chord has first to be contradicted. On the other hand, a contrast between minor tonic and major dominant key is very difficult to work on a large scale (as, for example, in the complementary key for second subjects of sonata movements) because, while the major dominant key behaves as if not directly
HARMONY
related to the minor tonic, it also gives a curious sensation of being merely on the dominant instead of in it; and thus we find that in the few classical examples of a dominant major second subject in a minor sonata-movement the second subject either relapses into the dominant minor, as in Beethoven's Kreulzer Sonata and the finale of Brahms's Third Symphony, or begins in it, as in the first movement of Brahms's Fourth Symphony.
The effect of a modulation to a related key obviously depends upon the change of meaning in the chords common to both keys, and also in the new chords introduced. Thus, in modulating to the dominant we invest the brightest chord of our first key with the finality and importance of a tonic; our original tonic chord becomes comparatively soft in its new position as sub- dominant; and a new dominant chord arises, surpassing in brilliance the old dominant (now tonic) as that surpassed the primary tonic. Again, in modulating to the subdominant the softest chord of the primary key becomes tonic, the old tonic is comparatively bright, and a new and softer subdominant chord appears. We have seen the peculiarities of modulation to the dominant from a minor tonic, and it follows from them that modulation from a minor tonic to the subdominant involves the beautiful effect of a momentary conversion of the primary tonic chord to major, the poetic and often dramatically ironical power of which is manifested at the conclusion of more than half the finest classical slow movements in minor keys, from Bach's Et> minor Prelude in the first book of the Forty-eight to the slow movement of Brahms's G major String Quintet, Op. in.
The effect of the remaining key-relationships involves contrasts between major and minor mode; but it is otherwise far less defined, since the primary tonic chord does not occupy a cardinal position in the second key. These key-relationships are most important from a minor tonic, as the change from minor to major is more vivid than the reverse change. The smoothest changes are those to " relative " minor, " relative " major (C to A minor; C minor to Et>); and mediant minor and sub- mediant major (C to E minor; C minor to At>). The change from major tonic to supertonic minor is extremely natural on a .small scale, i.e. within the compass of a single melody, as may be seen in countless openings of classical sonatas. But on a large scale the identity of primary dominant with secondary sub- dominant confuses the harmonic perspective, and accordingly in classical music the supertonic minor appears neither in the second subjects of first movements nor as the key for middle movements.1 But since the key-relationships of a minor tonic are at once more obscure harmonically and more vivid in con- trast, we find that the converse key-relationship of the flat 7th, though somewhat bold and archaic in effect on a small scale, has once or twice been given organic function on a large scale in classical movements of exceptionally fantastic character, of which the three great examples are the ghostly slow movement of Beethoven's D major Trio, Op. 70, No. i, the scherzo of his Ninth Symphony, and the finale of Brahms's D minor Violin Sonata (where, however, the C major theme soon passes per- manently into the more orthodox dominant minor).
Thus far we have the set of key-relationships universally recognized since the major and minor modes were established, a relationship based entirely on the place of the primary tonic chord in the second key. It only remains for us to protest against the orthodox description of the five related keys as being the " relative " minor or major and the dominant and sub- dominant with their " relative " minors or majors; a conception which expresses the fallacious assumption that keys which are related to the same key are related to one another, and which thereby implies that all keys are equally related and that classical composers were fools. It cannot be too strongly insisted that there is no foundation for key-relationship except through a tonic, and that it is through the tonic that the most distant keys
1 Until Beethoven developed the resources for a wider scheme of key-contrasts, the only keys for second subjects of sonata-movements were the dominant (when the tonic was major) and the " relative " major or dominant minor (when the tonic was minor). A wider range was possible only in the irresponsible style of D. Scarlatti.
have always been connected by every composer with a wide range of modulation, from Haydn to Brahms and (with due allowance for the conditions of his musical drama) Wagner.
b. Indirect Relationships. — So strong is the indentity of the tonic in major and minor mode that Haydn and Mozart had no scruple in annexing, with certain reservations, the key-relation- ships of either as an addition to those of the other. The smooth- ness of Mozart's style makes him prefer to annex the key-relation- ships of the tonic minor (e.g. C major to Ab, the submediant of C minor), because the primary tonic note is in the second key, although its chord is transformed. His range of thought does not allow him to use these keys otherwise than episodically; but he certainly does not treat them as chaotically remote by confining them to rapid modulations in the development- portions of his movements. They occur characteristically as beautiful purple patches before or during his second subjects. Haydn, with his mastery of rational paradox, takes every opportunity, in his later works, of using all possible indirect key-relationships in the choice of key for slow movements and for the trios of minuets. By using them thus sectionally (i.e. so as not to involve the organic connecting links necessary for the complementary keys of second subjects) he gives himself a free hand; and he rather prefers those keys which are obtained by transforming the minor relationships of a major primary key (e.g. C to A major instead of A minor). These relationships are of great brilliance and also of some remoteness of effect, since the primary tonic note, as well as its chord, disappears entirely. Haydn also obtains extreme contrasts by changing both modes (e.g. C minor to A major, as in the G minor Quartet, Op. 72, No 6, where the slow movement is in E major), and indeed there is not one key-contrast known to Beethoven and Brahms which Haydn does not use with complete sense of its meaning, though his art admits it only as a surprise.
Beethoven rationalized every step in the whole possible range of key-relationship by such harmonic means as are described in the article BEETHOVEN. Haydn's favourite key-relationships he used for the complementary key in first movements; and he at once discovered that the use of the major mediant as complementary key to a major tonic implied at all events just as much suggestion of the submediant major in the recapitula- tion as would not keep the latter half of the movement for too long out of the tonic. The converse is not the case, and where Beethoven uses the submediant major as complementary key in a major first movement he does not subsequently introduce the still more remote and brilliant mediant in the recapitulation. The function of the complementary key is that of contrast and vividness, so that if the key is to be remote it is as well that it should be brilliant rather than sombre; and accordingly the easier key-relationships obtainable through transforming the tonic into minor do not appear as complementary keys until Beethoven's latest and most subtle works, as the Quartet in Bb, Op. 130 (where we again note that the flat submediant of the exposition is temporarily answered by the flat mediant of the recapitulation).
c. Artificial Key-relationships. — Early in the history of the minor mode it was discovered that the lower tetrachord could be very effectively and naturally altered so as to resemble the upper (thus producing the scale C Db Et[ F, G Ab Bit C). This produces a flat supertonic (the chord of which is generally pre- sented in its first inversion, and is known as the Neapolitan 6th. from its characteristic use in the works of the Neapolitan school which did so much to establish modern tonality) and its origin, as just described, often impels it to resolve on a major tonic chord. Consequently it exists in the minor mode as a pheno- menon not much more artificial than the mode itself; and although the keys it thus connects are extremely remote, and the effect of their connexion very surprising, the connexion is none the less real, whether from a major or a minor tonic, and is a crucial test of a composer's sense of key-perspective. Thus Philipp Emanuel Bach in a spirit of mere caprice puts the charming little slow movement of his D major Symphony into Eb and obliterates all real relationship by chaotic operatic
HARMONY
connecting links. Haydn's greatest pianoforte sonata (which, being probably his last, is of course No. i in most editions) is in Eb, and its slow movement is in Fl) major ( = Ft>). That key had already appeared, with surprising effect, in the wander- ings of the development of the first movement. No attempt is made to indicate its connexion with Eb; and the finale begins in Et», but its first bar is unharmonized and starts on the one note which most contradicts Ei; and least prepares the mind for Et». The immediate repetition of the opening phrase a step higher on the normal supertonic strikes the note which the, open- ing had contradicted, and thus shows its function in the main key without in the least degree explaining away the paradoxical effect of the key of the slow movement. Brahms's Violoncello Sonata Op. 99, is in F; a prominent episode in the development of the first movement is in E# minor ( = Gb), thus preparing the mind for the slow movement, which is in F$ major ( = Gt>), with a central episode in F minor. The scherzo is in F minor, and begins on the dominant. Thus if we play its first chord immedi- ately after the last chord of the slow movement we have exactly that extreme position of flat supertonic followed by dominant which is a favourite form of cadence in Wagner, who can even convey its meaning by its mere bass without any harmonies (Walkiire, Act 3, Scene 2:"Was jetzt du bist,das sage dir selbst").
Converse harmonic relationships are, as we have seen, always weaker than their direct forms. And thus the relation of C major to B major or minor (as shown in the central episode of the slow movement just mentioned) is rare. Still more rare is the obtain- ing of indirect artificial relationships, of which the episode in the first movement just mentioned is an illustration in so far as it enhances the effect of the slow movement, but is incon- clusive in so far as it is episodic. For with remote key-relation- ships everything depends upon whether they are used with what may be called cardinal function (like complementary keys) or not. Even a near key may occur in the course of wandering modula- tions without producing any effect of relationship at all, and this should always be borne in mind whenever we accumulate statistics from classical music.
d. Contrary and Unconnected Keys. — There remain only two pairs of keys that classical music has not brought into connexion, a circumstance which has co-operated with the utter vagueness of orthodox theories on the subject to confirm the conventionally progressive critic in his conviction that all modulations are alike. We have seen how the effect of modulation from major tonic to minor supertonic is, on a large scale, obscured by the identity of the primary dominant with the secondary sub- dominant, though the one chord is major and the other minor. Now when the supertonic becomes major this difference no longer obviates the confusion, and modulation from C major to D major, though extremely easy, is of so bewildering effect that it is used by classical composers only in moments of intensely dramatic surprise, as, for example, in the recapitulation of the first subject of Beethoven's Eroica Symphony, and the last variation (or coda) cf the slow movement of his Trio in B\>, Op. 97. And in both cases the balance is restored by the converse (and equally if not more contradictory) modulation between major tonic and major fiat yth, though in the slow movement of the B\> Trio the latter is represented only by its dominant chord which is " enharmonically " resolved into quite another key. The frequent attempts made by easy-going innovators to treat these key-contrasts on another footing than that of paradox, dramatic surprise or hesitation, only show a deficient sense of tonality, which must also mean an inability to see the intensely powerful effect of the true use of such modulations in classical music, an effect which is entirely inde- pendent of any ability to formulate a theory to explain it.1
1 Many theorists mistake the usual extreme emphasis on the dominant chord of the dominant key, in preparation for second subjects, for a modulation to the major supertonic, but this can deceive no one with any sense of tonality. A good practical test is to see what becomes of such passages when translated into the minor mode. Illusory modulation to the flat yth frequently occurs as a bold method of throwing strong emphasis on to the subdominant at the outset of a movement, as in Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 31, No. I.
There now remains only one pair of keys that have never been related, namely, those that (whether major or minor) are at the distance of a tritone 4th. In the first place they are unrelated because there is no means of putting any form of a tonic chord of F$ into any form of the key of C, or vice versa; and in the second place because it is impossible to tell which of two precisely opposite keys the second key may be (e.g. we have no means of knowing that a direct modulation from C to F$ is not from C to Gt>, which is exactly the same distance in the opposite direction) . And this brings us to the only remaining subjects of importance in the science and art of harmony, namely, those of the tempered scale, enharmonic ambiguity and just intonation. Before proceeding we subjoin a table of all the key-relationships from major and minor tonics, representing the degrees by capital Roman figures when the second key is major and small figures
TABLES OF KEY-RELATIONSHIPS A. From Major Tonic
|
— i — 1 1 1 |
Indirect through both i and the second key |
i ! |
|
Indirect, through i \ III> \{It \ |
Indirect through the second key |
HI Vl |
|
i i Doubly indirect through the farmer indirect keys Hi* Vik |
\ \ \ \ t |
|
|
Artificial, direct |
\ \ IH> \ |
VII & vfi |
|
Artificial, indirect* |
\ S I* \ |
|
|
\ \ \ |
||
|
Unrelated |
\i > !V\IVt& ivff-Vk &vk |
|
|
Contradictory |
1 \, £ VII> & viib |
|
|
B. i |
From Minor Tonic * Direct Relationships III iv v VI V,II |
|
|
jt 1 I i I Indirect, through I iji» viS |
i i i i ,lil Indirect 'through both ! i I and the second key IV V ,' |
|
|
Indirect through the / second key ill vi / |
||
|
Dcjmbly indirect III* VI» |
\ |
|
|
Artificial, direct Artificial, indirect* |
* 1 X \ Ilk |
|
|
'< il* VlHt'it vii# |
||
|
> , f * / \ / |
||
|
Unrelated |
\ / \IV4t & MI=|V> &v(> |
|
|
Contradictory6 |
; \l II viik |
2 Very rare, but the slow movement of Schubert's C major String Quintet demonstrates it magnificently.
3 All the indirect relationships from a minor tonic are distinctly strained and, except in the violently contrasted doubly indirect keys, obscure as being themselves minor. But the direct artificial modulation is quite smooth, and rich rather than remote. See Beethoven's C$ minor Quartet.
4 No classical example, though the clearer converse from a major tonic occurs effectively.
6 Not (with the exception of II) so violent as when from major tonic. Bach, whose range seldom exceeds direct key-relationships, is not afraid to drift from D minor to C minor, though nothing would induce him to go from D major to C major or minor.
8
HARMONY
when minor. Thus I represents tonic major, iv represents subdominant minor, and so on. A flat or a sharp after the figure indicates that the normal degree of the standard scale has been lowered or raised a semitone, even when in any particular pair of keys it would not be expressed by a flat or a sharp. Thus vib would, from the tonic of Bb major, express the position of the slow movement of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 106, which is written in F# minor since Gb minor is beyond the practical limits of notation.
VI. Temperament and Enharmonic Changes. — As the facts of artistic harmony increased in complexity and range, the purely acoustic principles which (as Helmholtz has shown) go so far to explain 16th-century aesthetics became more and more inadequate; and grave practical obstacles to euphonious tuning began to assert themselves. The scientific (or natural) ratios of the diatonic scale were not interfered with by art so long as no discords were "fundamental"; but when discords began to assume independence, one and the same note often became assignable on scientific grounds to two slightly different positions in pitch, or at all events to a position incompatible with even tolerable effect in performance. Thus, the chord of the diminished 7th is said to be intolerably harsh in " just intonation," that is to say, intonation based upon the exact ratios of a normal minor scale. In practical performance the diminished 7th contains three minor 3rds and two imperfect 5ths (such as that which is present in the dominant 7th), while the peculiarly dissonant interval from which the chord takes its name is very nearly the same as a major 6th. Now it can only be said that an intonation which makes nonsense of chords of which every classical composer from the time of Corelli has made excellent sense, is a very unjust intonation indeed; and to anybody who realizes the universal relation between art and nature it is obvious that the chord of the diminished 7th must owe its naturalness to its close approximation to the natural ratios of the minor scale, while it owes its artistic possibility to the extremely minute instinctive modification by which its dissonance becomes tolerable. As a matter of fact, although we have shown here and in the article Music how artificial is the origin and nature of all but the very scantiest materials of the musical language, there is no art in which the element of practical compromise is so minute and so hard for any but trained scientific observation to perceive. If a painter could have a scale of light and shade as nearly approaching nature as the practical intonation of music approaches the acoustic facts it really involves, a visit to a picture gallery would be a severe strain on the strongest eyes, as Ruskin constantly points out. Yet music is in this respect exactly on the same footing as other arts. It constitutes no exception to the universal law that artistic ideas must be realized, not in spite of, but by means of practical necessities. However independent the treatment of discords, they assert themselves in the long run as transient. They resolve into permanent points of repose of which the basis is natural; but the transient phenomena float through the harmonic world adapting themselves, as best they can, to their environment, showing as much dependence upon the stable scheme of " just intonation " as a crowd of metaphors and abstractions in language shows a dependence upon the rules of the syllogism. As much and no more, but that is no doubt a great deal. Yet the attempt to determine the point in modern harmony where just intonation should end and the tempered scale begin, is as vexatious as the attempt to define in etymology the point at which the literal meaning of a word gives places to a metaphorical meaning. And it is as unsound scientifically as the conviction of the typical circle-squarer that he is unravelling amysteryandmeasuringaquantityhitherto unknown. Just intonation is a reality in so far as it emphasizes the contrast between concord and discord; but when it forbids artistic interaction between harmony and melody it is a chimera. It is sometimes said that Bach, by the example of his forty-eight preludes and fugues in all the major and minor keys, first fixed the modern scale. This is true practically, but not aesthetically. By writing a series of movements in every key of which the
keynote was present in the normal organ and harpsichord manuals of his and later times, he enforced the system by which all facts of modern musical harmony are represented on keyed instruments by dividing the octave into twelve equal semitones, instead of tuning a few much-used keys as accurately as possible and sacrificing the euphony of all the rest. This system of equal temperament, with twelve equal semitones in the octave, obviously annihilates important distinctions, and in the most used keys it sours the concords and blunts the discords more than unequal temperament; but it is never harsh; and where it does not express harmonic subtleties the ear instinctively supplies the interpretation; as the observing faculty, indeed, always does wherever the resources of art indicate more than they express.
Now it frequently happens that discords or artificial chords are not merely obscure in their intonation, whether ideally or practically, but as produced in practice they are capable of two sharply distinct interpretations. And it is possible for music to take advantage of this and to approach a chord in one signifi- cance and quit it with another. Where this happens in just intonation (in so far as that represents a real musical conception) such chords will, so to speak, quiver from one meaning into the other. And even in the tempered scale the ear will interpret the change of meaning as involving a minute difference of intonation. The chord of the diminished 7th has in this way four different meanings —
E*. ii.
and the chord of the augmented 6th, when accompanied by the fifth, may become a dominant 7th or vice versa, as in the passage already cited in the coda of the slow movement of Beethoven's Bb Trio, Op. 97. Such modulations are called enharmonic. We have seen that all the more complex musical phenomena involve distinctions enharmonic in the sense of intervals smaller than a semitone, as, for instance, whenever the progression D E in the scale of C, which is a minor tone, is identified with the progression of D E in the scale of D, which is a major tone (differing from the former as f from ^). But the special musical meaning of the word " enharmonic " is restricted to the difference between such pairs of sharps with flats or naturals as can be represented on a keyboard by the same note, this difference being the most impressive to the ear in " just intonation " and to the imagination in the tempered scale.
Not every progression of chords which is, so to speak, spelt enharmonically is an enharmonic modulation in itself. Thus a modulation from D flat to E major looks violently enharmonic on paper, as in the first movement of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 1 10. But E major with four sharps is merely the most convenient way of expressing F flat, a key which would need six flats and a double flat. The reality of an enharmonic modula- tion can be easily tested by transporting the passage a semi- tone. Thus, the passage just cited, put a semitone lower, becomes a perfectly diatonic modulation from C to E flat. But no transposition of the sixteen bars before the return of the main theme in the scherzo of Beethoven's Sonata in Ey, Op. 31, No. 3, will get rid of the fact that the diminished 7th (G Bb Db Efl) , on the dominant of F minor, must have changed into G Bb Db Fb (although Beethoven does not take the trouble to alter the spelling) before it could resolve, as it does, upon the dominant of Ab. But though there is thus a distinction between real and apparent enharmonic modulations, it frequently happens that a series of modulations perfectly diatonic in themselves returns to the original key by a process which can only be called an enharmonic circle. Thus the whole series of keys now in practical use can be arranged in what is called the circle of fifths (C G D A E B F# [ = Gbl Db Ab Bb F C, from which series we now see the meaning of what was said in the discussion of key-relationships as to the ambiguity of the relationships between keys a tritone fourth apart). Now no human memory is capable of distinguishing the difference of pitch between the
HARMONY
keys of C and B# after a wide series of modulations. The difference would be perceptible enough in immediate juxta- position, but after some interval of time the memory will certainly accept two keys so near in pitch as identical, whether in "just intonation " or not. And hence the enharmonic circle of fifths is a conception of musical harmony by which infinity is at once rationalized and avoided, just as some modern mathematicians are trying to rationalize the infinity of space by a non-Euclidian space so curved in the fourth dimension as to return upon itself. A similar enharmonic circle progressing in major 3rds is of frequent occurrence and of very rich effect. For example, the keys of the movements of Brahms's C Minor Symphony are C minor, E major, Ab major ( = G#),aridC ( = Bft). And the same circle occurs in the opposite direction in the first movement of his Third Symphony, where the first subject is in F, the transi- tion passes directly to Db and thence by exactly the same step to A (= Bbb). The exposition is repeated, which of course means that in " just intonation " the first subject would begin in Gbb and then pass through a transition in Ebbb to the second subject in Cbbb. As the development contains another spurious enharmonic modulation, and the recapitulation repeats in another position the first spurious enharmonic modulation of the exposition/ it would follow that Brahms's movement began in F and ended in C sextuple-flat! So much, then, for the application of bad metaphysics and circle-squaring mathematics to the art of music. Neither in mathematics nor in art is an approximation to be confused with an imperfection. Brahms's movement begins and ends in F much more exactly than any wooden diagonal fits a wooden square.
The following series of musical illustrations show the genesis of typical harmonic resources of classical and modern music.
Ex. u. — Three concords (tonic, first inversion of sub- dominant, and dominant of A minor, a possible 16th- century cadence in the Phrygian mode).
Ex. 13. — The same chords varied by a sus- pension (*).
Ex. 14. — Ditto, with the further addition of a double suspension (*) and two passing notes (ft).
1 , ' | i ,«.
r i J 1
Ex. 15. — Ditto, with a chromatic alteration of the second chord (*) and an "essential" discord (dominant 7th) at (t).
Ex. 16. — Ditto, with chromatic passing notes (**) and appoggiaturas (tt).
Ex. 17. — The last two chor ds of Ex. 1 6 at tacked unexpectedly, the first ap- poggiatura (.*) prolonged (til it seems to make a strange foreign chord before it resolves on the short note at $, while the second appoggiatura (f) is chromatic.
Ex. 18. — The same en- harmonically transformed so as to become a variation of the "dominant ninth" of C minor. The G# at * is really Ab, and % is no longer a note of resolution, but a chromatic passing-note.
WAGNER.
"*^>-_ ^S ' %~' ^
Definitions.
(Intended to comprise the general conceptions set forth in the above article.)
1. Musical sounds, or notes, are sensations produced by regular periodical vibrations in the air, sufficiently rapid to coalesce in a single continuous sensation, and not too rapid for the mechanism or the human ear to respond.
2. The pitch of a note is the sensation corresponding to the degree of rapidity of its vibrations; being low or gram where these are slow, ana High or acute where they are rapid.
3. An interval is the difference in pitch between two notes.
4. Rhythm is the organization, in a musical scheme, of sounds in respect of time.
5. Melody is the organization, in a musical scheme, of rhythmic notes in respect of pitch.
6. Harmony is the organization, in a musical scheme, of simul- taneous combinations of notes on principles whereby their acoustic properties interact with laws of rhythm and melody.
7. The harmonic series is an infinite series of notes produced by the subdivision of a vibrating body or column of air into aliquot parts, such notes being generally inaudible except in the form of the timbre which their presence in various proportions imparts to the fundamental note produced by the whole vibrating body or air-column.
8. A concord is a combination which, both by its acoustic smooth- ness and by its logical origin and purpose in a musical scheme, can form a point of repose.
9. A discord is a combination in which both its logical origin in a musical scheme and its acoustic roughness show that it cannot form a point of repose.
10. The perfect concords and perfect intervals are those comprised within the first four members of the harmonic series, namely, the octave, as between numbers I and 2 of the series (see Ex. I above) ; the 5th, as between Nos. 2 and 3; and the 4th, as between Nos' 3 and 4.
11. All notes exactly one or more octaves apart are regarded as harmonically identical.
12. The root of a chord is that note from which the whole or the most important parts of the chord appear (if distributed in the right octaves) as members of the harmonic series.
13. A chord is inverted when its lowest note is not its root.
14. The major triad is a concord containing three different notes which (octaves being disregarded) are identical with the first, third and fifth members of the harmonic series (the second and fourth members being negligible as octaves).
15. The mino - '.riad is a concord containing the same intervals as the major tried in a different order; in consequence it is artificial, as one of its notes is not derivable from the harmonic series.
16. Unessential discords are those that are treated purely as the phenomena of transition, delay or ornament, in an otherwise con- cordant harmony.
17. Essential discords are those which are so treated that the mind tends to regard them as definite chords possessing roots.
1 8. A key is an harmonic system in which there is never any doubt as to which note or triad shall be the final note of music in that system, nor of the relations between that note or chord and the other notes or chords. (In this sense the church modes are either not keys or else they are subtle mixtures of keys.)
19. This final note of a key is called its tonic.
20. The major mode is that of keys in which the tonic triad and the two other cardinal triads are major.
21. The minor mode is that of keys in which the tonic triad and one other cardinal triad are minor.
22. A diatonic scale is a series of the notes essential to one major or minor key, arranged in order of pitch and repeating itself in other octaves on reaching the limit of an octave.
23. Modulation is the passing from one key to another.
24. Chromatic notes and chords are those which do not belong to the diatonic scale of the passage in which they occur, but which are not so used as to cause modulation.
25. Enharmonic intervals are minute intervals which never occur in music as directly measured quantities, though they exist as differences between approximately equal ordinary intervals, diatonic or chromatic. In an enharmonic modulation, two chords differing by an enharmonic quantity are treated as identical.
26. Pedal or organ point is the sustaining of a single note in the bass (or, in the case of an inverted pedal, in an upper part) while the larmonies move independently. Unless the harmonies are some- :imes foreign to the sustained note, it does not constitute a pedal. In modern music pedals take place on either the tonic or the dominant, other pedal-notes being rare and of complex meaning. Double medals (of tonic and dominant, with tonic below) are not unusual. The device is capable of very free treatment, and has produced many very bold and rich harmonic effects in music since the earlier works of Beethoven. It probably accounts for many so-called
essential discords."
In the form of drones the pedal is the only real harmonic device of ancient and primitive music. The ancient Greeks sometimes
IO
HARMOTOME— HARNESS
used a reiterated instrumental note as an accompaniment above the melody. These primitive devices, though harmonic in the true modern sense of the word, are out of the line of harmonic develop- ment, and did not help it in any definite way.
27. The fundamental bass of a harmonic passage is an imaginary bass consisting of the roots of the chords.
28. A figured bass, or continue, is the bass of a composition supplied with numerals indicating the chords to be filled in by the accompanist. Thorough-bass (Ger. Generalbass) is the art of interpreting such figures. (D. F. T.)
HARMOTOME, a mineral of the zeolite group, consisting of hydrous barium and aluminium silicate, HsBaAi^SiOs^+SHjO. Usually a small amount of potassium is present replacing part
of the barium. The system of crystallization is monoclinic; only complex twinned crystals are known. A common and character- istic form of twinned crystal, such as is represented in the figure, con- sists of four intercrossing indi- viduals twinned together according to two twin-laws; the compound group resembles a tetragonal crystal with prism and pyramid, but may be distinguished from this by the grooves along the edges of the pseudo-prism. The faces of the crystals are marked by character- istic striations, as indicated in the figure. Twinned crystals of exactly the same kind are also frequent in phillipsite (q.v.). Crystals are usually white and translucent, with a vitreous lustre. The hardness is 45, and the specific gravity 2-5.
The name harmotome (from dp^os, " a joint," and Ttpvuv, " to cut ") was given by R. J. Haiiy in 1801, and has a crystallo- graphic signification. Earlier names are cross-stone (Ger. Kreuzstein) , ercinite, andreasbergolite and andreolite, the two last being derived from the locality, Andreasberg in the Harz. Morvenite (from Morven in Argyllshire) is the name given to small transparent crystals formerly referred to phillipsite.
Like other zeolites, harmotome occurs with calcite in the amygdaloidal cavities of volcanic rocks, for example, in the dolerites of Dumbartonshire, and as fine crystals in the agate- lined cavities in the melaphyre of Oberstein in Germany. It also occurs in gneiss, and sometimes in metalliferous veins. At Andreasberg in the Harz it is found in the lead and silver veins; and at Strontian in Argyllshire in lead veins, associated with brewsterite (a strontium and barium zeolite), barytes and calcite. (L. J. S.)
HARMS, CLAUS (1778-1855), German divine, was born at Fahrstedt in Schleswig-Holstein on the 25th of May 1778, and in his youth worked in his father's mill. At the university of Kiel he repudiated the prevailing rationalism and under the influence of Schleiermacher became a fervent Evangelical preacher, first at Lunden (1806), and then at Kiel (1816). His trenchant style made him very popular, and he did great service for his cause especially in 1817, when, on the 3ooth anniversary of the Reformation, he published side by side with Luther's theses, ninety-five of his own, attacking reason as " the pope of our time " who " dismisses Christ from the altar and throws God's word from the pulpit." He also had some fame as a hymn- writer, and besides volumes of sermons published a good book on Pastoraltheologie (1830). He resigned his pastorate on account of blindness in 1849, and died on the ist of February 1855.
See Autobiography (2nd ed., Kiel, 1852); M. Baumgarten, Bin Denkmalfur C. Harms (Brunswick, 1855).
HARNACK, ADOLF (1851- ), German theologian, was born on the 7th of May 1851 at Dorpat, in Russia, where his father, Theodosius Harnack (1817-1889), held a professorship of pastoral theology.
Theodosius Harnack was a staunch Lutheran and a prolific writer on theological subjects; his chief field of work was practical theology, and his important book on that subject, summing up his long experience and teaching, appeared at
Eriangen (1877-1878, 2 vols.). The liturgy of the Lutheran church of Russia has, since 1898, been based on his Liturgische Formulare (1872).
The son pursued his studies at Dorpat (1869-1872) and at Leipzig, where he took his degree; and soon afterwards (1874) began lecturing as a Privatdozent. These lectures, which dealt with such special subjects as Gnosticism and the Apocalypse, attracted considerable attention, and in 1876 he was appointed professor extraordinarius. In the same year he began the publica- tion, in conjunction with O. L. von Gebhardt and T. Zahn, of an edition of the works of the Apostolic Fathers, Patrum apostoli- corum opera, a smaller edition of which appeared in 1877. Three years later he was called to Giessen as professor ordinarius of church history. There he collaborated with Oscar Leopold von Gebhardt in Texte und U nlersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Litleratur (1882 sqq.), an irregular periodical, con- taining only essays in New Testament and patristic fields. In 1 88 1 he published a work on monasticism, Das Monchtum, seine Ideale und seine Geschichte (sth ed., 1900; English translation, 1901), and became joint-editor with Emil Schurer of the Theologische Literaturzeitung. In 1885 he published the first volume of his epoch-making work, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte (3rd ed. in three volumes, 1894-1898; English translation in seven volumes, 1894-1899). In this work Harnack traces the rise of dogma, by which he understands the authoritative doctrinal system of the 4th century and its development down to the Reformation. He considers that in its earliest origins Christian faith and the methods of Greek thought were so closely intermingled that much that is not essential to Chris- tianity found its way into the resultant system. Therefore Protestants are not only free, but bound, to criticize it; indeed, for a Protestant Christian, dogma cannot be said to exist. An abridgment of this appeared in 1889 with the title Grundriss der Dogmengeschichte (3rd ed., 1898). In 1886 Harnack was called to Marburg; and in 1888, in spite of violent opposition from the conservative section of the church authorities, to Berlin. In 1890 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences. At Berlin, somewhat against his will, he was drawn into a controversy on the Apostles' Creed, in which the party antagon- isms within the Prussian Church had found expression. Harnack 's view is that the creed contains both too much and too little to be a satisfactory test for candidates for ordination, and he would prefer a briefer symbol which could be rigorously exacted from all (cf. his Das apostolische Glaubensbekenntnis. Ein geschichtlicher Bericht nebst einem Nachworte, 1892; 27th ed., 1896). At Berlin Harnack continued his literary labours. In 1893 he published a history of early Christian literature down to Eusebius, Geschichte der altchrisll. Litteratur bis Eusebius (part 2 of vol. i., 1897); and in 1900 appeared his popular lectures, Das Wesen des Christentums (sth ed., 1901; English translation, What is Christianity? 1901; 3rd ed., 1904). One of his more recent historical works is Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums in den ersten drei J ahrhunderten (1902; English translation in two volumes, 1904-1905). It has been followed by some very interesting and important New Testament studies (Beitrage zur Einleilung in das neue Testament, 1906 sqq.; Engl. trans.: Luke the Physician, 1907; Tke Savings of Jesus, 1908). Harnack, both as lecturer and writer, was one of the most prolific and most stimulating of modern critical scholars, and trained up in his " Seminar " a whole generation of teachers, who carried his ideas and methods throughout the whole of Germany and even beyond its borders. His distinctive character- istics are his claim for absolute freedom in the study of church history and the New Testament; his distrust of speculative theology, whether orthodox or liberal; his interest in practical Christianity as a religious life and not a system of theology. Some of his addresses on social matters have been published under the heading " Essays on the Social Gospel " (1907).
HARNESS (from O. Fr. harneis or harnois; the ultimate origin is obscure; the Celtic origin which connects it with the Welsh haiarn, iron, has phonetic and other difficulties; the French is the origin of the Span, arnes, and Ger. Harnisch), probably, in
HARO— HARP
n
origin, gear, tackle, equipment in general, but early applied particularly to the body armour of a soldier, including the trappings of the horse; now the general term for the gear of an animal used for draft purposes, traces, collar, bridle, girth, breeching, &c. It is usually not applied to the saddle or bridle of a riding animal. The word, in its original meaning of tackle or working apparatus, is still found in weaving, for the mechanism which shifts the warp-threads to form the " shed," and in bell-hanging, for the apparatus by which a large bell is hung. The New English Dictionary quotes an early use of the word for the lines, rod and hooks of an angler (Fysshing with an Angle,
c. 145°)-
HARO, CLAMEUR DE, the ancient Norman custom of " crying for justice," still surviving in the Channel Islands. The wronged party must on his knees and before witnesses cry: "Haro! Haro! Haro! a 1'aide, mon prince, on me fait tort." This appeal has to be respected, and the alleged trespass or tort must cease till the matter has been thrashed out in the courts. The " cry " thus acts as an interim injunction, and no inhabitant of the Channel Islands would think of resisting it. The custom is undoubtedly very ancient, dating from times when there were no courts and no justice except such as was meted out by princes personally. The popular derivation for the name is that which explains "Haro" as an abbreviation of "Ha! Rollo," a direct appeal to Rollo, first duke of Normandy. It is far more probable that haro is simply an exclamation to call attention (O.H.G. hera, hara, "here"!). Indeed it is clear that the " cry for justice " was in no sense an institution of Rollo, but was a method of appeal recognized in many countries. It is said to be identical with the " Legatro of the Bavarians and the Thuringians," and the first mention of it in France is to be found in the " Grand coutumier de Normandie." A similar custom, only observed in criminal charges, was recognized by the Saxon laws under the name of " Clamor Violentiae." Thus there is reason to think that William the Conqueror on his arrival in England found the " cry " fully established as far as criminal matters were concerned. Later the " cry " was made applicable to civil wrongs, and, when the administration of justice became systematized, disappeared altogether in criminal cases. It naturally tended to become obsolete as the administra- tion of justice became systematized, but it was long retained in north-western France in cases of disputed possession, and was not actually repealed until the close of the i8th century. A survival of the English form of haro is possibly to be found in the " Ara," a cry at fairs when " settling time " arrived.
HAROLD I. (d. 1040), surnamed Harefopt, the illegitimate son of Canute, king of England, and ^Elfgifu of Northampton. On the death of his father in 1035, he claimed the crown of England in opposition to Canute's legitimate son, Hardicanute. His claims were supported by Leofric, earl of Mercia, and the north; those of Hardicanute by his mother, Queen Emma, Godwine, earl of the West-Saxons and the south. Eventually Harold was temporarily elected regent, pending a final settle- ment on Hardicanufe's return from Denmark. Hardicanute, however, tarried, and meanwhile Harold's party increased rapidly. In 1037 he was definitely elected king, and banished Emma from the kingdom. The only events of his brief reign are ineffectual inroads of the Welsh and Scots. Hardicanute was preparing to invade England in support of his claims when Harold died at Oxford on the loth of March 1040.
HAROLD II. (c. 1022-1066), king of the English, the second son of Earl Godwine, was born about 1022. While still very young (before 1045) he was appointed to the earldom of the East-Angles. He snared his father's outlawry and banishment in 1051; but while Godwine went to Flanders, Harold with his brother Leofwine took refuge in Ireland. In 1052 Harold and Leofwine returned. Having plundered in the west of England, they joined their father, and were with him at the assembly which decreed the restoration of the whole family. Harold was now restored to his earldom of the East-Angles, and on his father's death in 1053 he succeeded him in the greater earldom
of the West-Saxons. He was now the chief man in the kingdom, and when the older earls Leofric and Siward died his power increased yet more, and the latter part of Edward's reign was virtually the reign of Harold. In 1055 he drove back the Welsh, who had burned Hereford. In 1063 came the great Welsh war, in which Harold, with the help of his brother Tostig, crushed the power of Gruffyd, who was killed by his own people. But in spite of his power and his prowess, Harold was the minister of the king rather than his personal favourite. This latter position rather belonged to Tostig, who on the death of Siward in 1053 received the earldom of Northumberland. Here, however, his harshness soon provoked enmity, and in 1065 the North- umbrians revolted against him, choosing Morkere in his place. Harold acted as mediator between the king and the insurgents, and at length agreed to the choice of Morkere, and the banish- ment of his brother. At the beginning of 1066 Edward died, with his last breath recommending Harold as his successor. He was accordingly elected at once and crowned. The men of Northumberland at first refused to acknowledge him, but Harold won them over. The rest of his brief reign was taken up with preparations against the attacks which threatened him on both sides at once. William challenged the crown, alleging both a bequest of Edward in his favour and a personal engagement which Harold had contracted towards him — probably in 1064; and prepared for the invasion of England. Meanwhile Tostig was trying all means to bring about his own restoration. He first attacked the Isle of Wight, then Lindesey, but was compelled to take shelter in Scotland. From May to September the king kept the coast with a great force by sea and land, but at last provisions failed and the land army was dispersed. Harold then came to London, ready to 'meet which- ever enemy came first. By this time Tostig had engaged Harold Hardrada of Norway to invade England. Together they sailed up the Humber, defeated Edwin and Morkere, and received the submission of York. Harold hurried northwards; and on the 25th of September he came on the Northmen at Stamford Bridge and won a complete victory, in which Tostig and Harold Hardrada were slain. But two days later William landed at Pevensey. Harold marched southward as fast as possible. He gathered his army in London from all southern and eastern England, but Edwin and Morkere kept back the forces of the north. The king then marched into Sussex and engaged the Normans on the hill of Senlac near Battle (see HASTINGS). After a fight which lasted from morning till evening, the Normans had the victory, and Harold and his two brothers lay dead on the field (i4th of October 1066). .
HARP (Fr. harpe; Ger. Harfe; Ital. arpa), a member of the class of stringed instruments of which the strings are twanged or vibrated by the fingers. The harp is an instrument of beautiful proportions, approximating to a triangular form, the strings diminishing in length as they ascend in pitch. The mechanism is concealed within the different parts of which the instrument is composed, (i) the pedestal or pedal-box, on which rest (2) the vertical pillar, and (3) the inclined convex body in which the soundboard is fixed, (4) the curved neck, with (5) the comb concealing the mechanism for stopping the strings, supported by the pillar and the body.
(1) The pedestal or pedal-box^ forms the base of the harp and contains seven pedals both in single and double action harps, the difference being that in the single action the pedals are only capable of raising the strings one semitone by means of a drop into a notch, whereas with the double action the pedals, after a first drop, can by a further drop into a second and lower notch shorten the string a second semitone, whereby each string is made to serve in turn for flat, natural and sharp. The harp is normally in the key of C flat major, and each of the seven pedals acts upon one of the notes of this diatonic scale throughout the compass. The choice of this method of tuning was imposed by the construction of the harp with double action. The pedals remain in the notches until released by the foot, when the pedal returns to its normal position through the action of a spiral spring, which may be seen under each of the pedals by turning the harp up.
(2) The vertical pillar is a kind of tunnel in which are placed the seven rods worked by the pedals, which set in motion the mechanism situated in the neck of the instrument. Although the pillar apparently
12
HARP
rests on the pedestal, it is really supported by a brass shoulder firmly screwed to the beam which forms the lowest part of the body, a connexion which remains undisturbed when the pedal box and its cover are removed.
(3) The body or sound-chest of the harp is in shape like the longi- tudinal section of a cone. It was formerly composed of staves joined together as in the lute and mandoline. Erard was the first to make it in two pieces of wood, generally sycamore, with the addition of a flat soundboard of Swiss pine. The body is strengthened on the inside, in order to resist the tension of the strings, by means of ribs; there are five soundholes in the back, which in the older models were furnished with swell shutters opened at will by the swell pedal, the fourth from the left worked by the left foot. As the increase of sound obtained by means of the swell was infinitesimal, the device has now been discarded. The harp is strung by knotting the end of the string and passing it through its hole in the centre of the sound- board, where it is kept in position by means cf a grooved peg which grips the string.
(4) The neck consists of a curved piece of wood resting on the body at the treble end of the instrument and joining the pillar at the bass end. In the neck are set the tuning pins round which are wound the strings.
(5) The comb is the name given to two brass plates or covers which fit over both sides of the neck, concealing part of the mechan- ism for shortening the strings and raising their pitch a semitone when actuated by the pedals. On the front plate of the comb, to the left of the player, is a row of brass bridges against which the strings rest below the tuning pins, and which determine the vibrating length of the string reckoned from the peg in the soundboard. Below the bridges are two rows of brass disks, known as forks, connected by steel levers; each disk is equipped with two studs for grasping the string and shortening it. The mechanism is ingenious. When a pedal is depressed to the first notch, the corresponding lower disk turns a little way on a mandrel keeping the studs clear of the string. The upper disk, set in motion by the steel levers connecting the disks, revolves simultaneously till the string is caught by the two studs which thus form a new bridge, shortening the vibrating length of the string by just the length necessary to raise the pitch a semitone. If the same pedal be depressed to the second notch, another move- ment causes the lower disk to revolve again till the string is a second time seized and shortened, the upper disk remaining stationary. The hidden mechanism meanwhile has gone through a series of movements; the pedal is really a lever set upon a spring, and when depressed it draws down the connecting rod in the pillar which sets in motion chains governing the mandrels of the disks.
The harp usually has forty-six strings, of gut in the middle and upper registers, and of covered steel wire in the bass; the C strings are red and the F strings blue. The compass thus has a range of
octaves from
The double stave is
used as for the pianoforte. The single action harp used to be tuned to the key of Efc> major.
The modern harp with double action is the only instrument with fixed tones, not determined by the ear or touch of the performer, which has separate notes for naturals, sharps and flats, giving it an enharmonic compass. On the harp the appreciable interval between D# and El> can be played. The harp in its normal condition is tuned to Ct> major; it rests with the performer to transpose it at will in a few seconds into any other key by means of the pedals. Each of the pedals influences one note of the scale throughout the compass, beginning at the left with D, C, and B worked by the left foot. Missing the fourth or forte pedal, and continuing towards the right we get the E, F, G and A pedals worked by the right foot. By lowering the D pedal into the first notch the Db becomes Dti, and into the second notch D#, and so on for all the pedals. If, for example, a piece be written in the key of E major, the harp is trans- posed into that key by depressing the E, A, and B pedals to the first notch, and those for F, G, C and D to the second or sharp notch and so on through all the keys. Accidentals and modulations are readily played by means of the pedals, provided the transitions be not too rapid. The harp is the instrument upon which transposition presents the least difficulty, for the fingering is the same for all keys. The strings are twanged with the thumbs and the first three fingers.
The quality of tone does not vary much in the different registers, but it has the greatest brilliancy in keys with many flats, for the strings are then open and not shortened by the forks. Various effects can be obtained on the harp: (i) by harmonics, (2) by damp- ing, (3) by guitar tones, (4) by the glissando. (i) Harmonics are produced by resting the ball of the hand on the middle of the string and setting it in vibration by the thumb or the first two fingers of the same hand, whereby a mysterious and beautiful tone is obtained. Two or three harmonics can be played together with the left hand, and by using both hands at once as many as four are possible. (2) Damping is effected by laying the palm against the string in the
bass and the back of the finger in the treble. (3) Guitar or pizzicato notes are obtained by twanging the strings sharply at the lower end near the soundboard with the nails. (4) The glissando effect is produced, as on the pianoforte, by sliding the thumb or finger along the strings in quick succession; this does not necessarily give the diatonic scale, for by means of the pedals the harp can be tuned beforehand to chords. It is possible to play on the harp all kinds of diatonic and arpeggio passages, but no chromatic, except in very slow tempo, on account of the time required by the mechanism of the pedals; and chords of three or four notes in each hand, shakes, turns, successions of double notes can be easily acquired. The same note can also be repeated slowly or quickly, the next string being tuned to a duplicate note, and the two strings plucked alternately in order to give the string time to vibrate.
Pleyel's chromatic harp, patented in 1894 ar>d improved in 1903 by Gustave Lyon, manager of the firm of Pleyel, Wolff & Co., is an instrument practically without mechanism which has already won great favour in France and Belgium, notably in the orchestra. It has been constructed on the familiar lines of the pianoforte. Henry Pape, a piano manufacturer, had in 1845 conceived the idea of a chromatic harp of, which the strings crossed in the centre as in the piano, and a report on the construction was published at the time; the instrument, however, was not considered successful, and was relegated to oblivion until Mr Lyon revised the matter and brought out a successful and practical instrument. The advantages claimed for this harp are the abandonment of the whole pedal mechanism, a metal framing which insures the strings keeping in tune as long as those of a piano, and an easily acquired technique. The chromatic harp consists of (i) a pedestal on castors, (2) a steel pillar without internal mechanism, (3) a wide neck containing two brass wrest-planks in which are fixed two rows of tuning pins, and (4) a soundchest in which is firmly riveted the steel plate to which the strings are fastened, and the soundboard pierced with eyelet holes through which the strings are drawn to the string plate. There is a string for every chromatic semitone of the scale of C major, the white strings representing the white keys of the piano keyboard, and the black strings corresponding to the black keys. The tuning pins for the black strings are set in the left side of the neck in alternate groups of twos and threes, and those for the white in the right side in alternate groups of threes and fours. The strings cross half-way between neck and soundboard, this being the point where they are plucked; the left hand finds the black notes above, and the right hand below the crossing. There is besides in the neck a set of twelve tuning buttons, each one of which on being pressed gives out one note of the chromatic scale tuned to the pitch of the diapason normal. It is obvious that the repertoire for this harp is very extensive, including many compositions written for the piano, which however cannot be played with any legato effects, these being still impossible on this chromatic harp.
History. — While the instrument is of great antiquity, it is yet from northern Europe that the modern harp and its name are derived. The Greeks and Romans preferred to it the lyre in its different varieties, and a Latin writer, Venantius Fortunatus,1 describes it in the 7th century of our era as an instrument of the barbarians — " Romanusque lyra, plaudat tibi barbarus harpa." This is believed to be the earliest mention of the name, which is clearly Teutonic, — O.H.Ger. harapha, A.-S. hearpe, Old Norse harpa. The modern Fr. harpe retains the aspirate; in the Spanish and Italian arpa it is dropped.
The earliest delineations of the harp in Egypt give no indication that it had not existed long before. There are, indeed, representa- tions in Egyptian paintings of stringed instruments of a bow-form having affinities with both primitive harp and nefer (a kind of oval guitar) that support the idea of the invention of the harp from the tense string of the warrior's or hunter's bow. This primitive- looking instrument, called nanga, had a boat- shaped sound-chest with a parchment or skin soundboard, down the centre of which one end of the string was fas- tened to a strip of wood, whilst the other was wound round pegs in • the upper part of the p
bow. The nanga was <IG° '•
played horizontally, being borne upon the performer's shoulder.1 Between it and the grand vertical harps in the frescos of the time of Rameses III., more than 3000 years old, discovered by the traveller Bruce3 (fig. i), there are varieties that permit us to bind the whole,
1 Poemala, lib. vii. cap. 8, p. 245, Migne's Patrologiae cursus completes (Paris, 1857-1866, vol. 88).
1 A few nangas (c. 1500 B.C.) are preserved among the Egyptian antiquities at the British Museum, fourth Egyptian room.
* Bruce's harps are reproduced by Champollion, tome iii. p. 261.
HARP
from the simplest bow-form to the almost triangular harp, into one family (see fig. 2).
The Egyptian harp had no front pillar, and as it was strung with catgut the tension and pitch must necessarily have been low. The
harps above - mentioned depicted in the tomb at Thebes, assumed from the players to be more than 6 ft. high, have not many strings, the one having ten, the other thirteen. What the , accordance of these strings I was it would be hard to recover. We must be content with the know- ledge that the old Egyptians possessed harps in principle like our .., own, the largest having
pedestals upon which they
bestowed a wealth of decoration, as if to show how much they prized them.
The ancient Assyrians had harps like those of Egypt in being without a front pillar, but differing from them in having the sound- body uppermost, in which we find the early use of soundholes; while the lower portion was a bar to which the strings were tied and by means of which the tuning was apparently effected.1 What the Hebrew harp was, whether it followed the Egyptian or the Assyrian, we do not know. That King David played upon the harp as com- monly depicted is rather a modern idea. Medieval artists frequently gave King David the psaltery, a horizontal stringed instrument from which has gradually developed the modern piano. The Hebrew " kinnor " may have been a kind ot trigonon, a triangular stringed instrument between a small harp and a psaltery, sounded by a plectrum, or more probably, as advocated by Dr Stainer in his essay on the music of the Bible, a kind of lyre.
The earliest records that we possess of the Celtic race, whether Gaelic or Cymric, give the harp a prominent place and harpists peculiar veneration and distinction. The names for the harp are, however, quite different from the Teutonic. The Irish " clairseach," the Highland Scottish " clarsach," the Welsh, Cornish, Breton " telyn, ' " telein," " te'Ien," show no etymological kinship to the other European names. The first syllable in clairseach or clarsach is derived from the Gaelic " clar," a board or table (soundboard), while the first syllable of telyn is distinctly Old Welsh, and has a tensile meaning; thus resonance supplies the one idea, tension the other.
The literature of these Celtic harps may be most directly found in Bunting's Ancient Music of Ireland (Dublin, 1840), Gunn's His- torical Enquiry respecting the Performance on the Harp in the Highlands of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1807), and E. Jones's Musical and Poetical Memoirs of the Welsh Bards (London, 1784). The treatises of Walker, Dalyell, and others may also be consulted ; but in all these authorities due care must be taken of the bias of patriotism, and the delusive aim to reconstruct much that we must be content to receive as only vaguely indicated in records and old monuments. There is, however, one early Irish monument about which there can be no mistake, the harp upon a cross belonging to the ancient church of Ullard near Kilkenny, the date of which cannot be later than 830; the sculpture is rude, but the instrument is clearly shown by the drawing in Bunting's work to have no front pillar. This remarkable structural likeness to the old harps of Egypt and Assyria may be accidental, but permits the plausible hypothesis of Eastern descent. The oldest specimen of the beautiful form by which the Irish harp is now recognized, with gracefully curved front pillar and sweep of neck (the latter known as the harmonic curve), is the famous harp in Trinity College, Dublin, the possession of which has been attributed to King Brian Boiroimhe. From this mythic ownership Dr Petrie (see essay in Bunting) has delivered it; but he can only deduce the age from the ornamentation and heraldry, which fix its date in the I4th century or a little later. There is a cast of it in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The next oldest is in the Highlands of Scotland, the Clarsach Lumanach, or Lament's Clarschoe, belonging, with another of later date, to the old Perthshire family of Robertson of Lude. Both are described in detail by Gunn. This Lamont harp was taken by a lady of that family from Argyleshire about 1460, on her marriage into the family of Lude. It had about thirty strings tuned singly, but the scale was sometimes doubled in pairs of unisons like lutes and other contemporary instruments. The Dalway harp in Ireland (fig. 3) inscribed " Ego sum Regina Cithararum," and dated 1621, appears to have had pairs of strings in the centre only. These were of brass wire, and played with the pointed finger-nails. The Italian contemporary " Arpa Doppia " was entirely upon the duplex principle, but with gut strings played by the fleshy ends of the fingers. When E. Bunting met at Belfast in 1792 as
' ,RePr?scntati°ns of these may be seen among the musical scenes in the Nimrod Gallery at the British Museum.
many Irish harpers as could be at that late date assembled, he found the compass of their harps to comprise
thirty notes which were tuned diatonically in the key^f G, under certain circumstances transposable to C and rarely to D, the scales being the major of these keys. The harp first appeared in the coat of arms of Ireland in the reign of Henry VIII.; and some years after in a map of 1567 preserved in a volume of state papers, we find it truly drawn according to the outlines of the national Irish instrument.2 References to the Highlands of Scotland are of neces- sity included with Ireland; and in both we find another name erroneously applied by lexicographers to the harp, viz. " cruit." Bunting particularly mentions the " cinnard cruit " (harp with a high head) and the " crom cruit " (the curved harp). In the Ossianic MSS. of the Dean of Lismore (1512) the word " crwt " occurs several times, and in Neill M 'Alpine's Gaelic Dictionary (1832), which gives the dialect of Islay, closely related to that of Ulster, the word " cruit " is rendered " harp." The confusion doubtless arose from the fact that from the nth century cithara is glossed hearpan in Anglo-Saxon MSS., a word which, like cilharisare in medieval Latin, referred to plucking or twanging of strings in contradistinction to those instru- ments vibrated by means of the bow. In FIG. 3. Irish of the 8th and gth centuries (Zeuss) Irish (Dalway) Harp, cithara is always glossed by " crot." The modern Welsh " crwth " is not a harp but a " rotta " (see CROWD). An old Welsh harp, not triple strung, exists, which bears a great resemblance to the Irish harp in neck, soundboard and soundholes. But this does not imply derivation of the harp of Wales from that of Ireland or the reverse. There is really no good historical evidence, and there may have been a common or distinct origin on which ethnology only can throw light.3 The Welsh like the Irish harp was often an hereditary instrument to be preserved with great care and veneration, and used by the bards of the family, who were alike the poet-musicians and historians. A slave was not allowed to touch a harp, and it was exempted by the Welsh laws from seizure for debt. The old Welsh harp appears to have been at one time strung with horse-hair, and by the Eisteddfod laws the pupil spent his noviciate of three years in the practice of a harp with that string- ing. The comparatively modern Welsh triple harp (fig. 4) is always strung with gut. It has a rising neck as before stated, and three rows of strings, — the outer rows tuned diatonic, the centre one chromatic for the sharps and flats. Jones gives it 98 strings and a compass of 5 octaves and one note, from violoncello C. As in all Celtic harps, the left is the treble hand, and in the triple harps there are 27 strings on that side, the right or bass hand having 37, and the middle or chromatic row 34.
The first pattern of the modern harp is dis- covered in German and Anglo-Saxon illuminated MSS. as far back as the gth century.4 A diatonic instrument, it must have been common through- out Europe, as Orcagna, Fra Angelico, and other famous Italian painters depict it over and over again in their masterpieces. No accidental semitones were possible with this instrument, unless the strings were shortened by the player's fingers. This lasted until the 1 7th century, when a Tirolese maker adapted hooks6 (perhaps FIG. 4.
suggested by the fretted or bonded clavichord) WelshTripleHarp. that, screwed into the neck, could be turned downwards to fix the desired semitone at pleasure. At last, some- where about 1720, Hochbrucker, a Bavarian, invented pedals that, acting through the pedestal of the instrument, governed by mechan- ism the stopping, and thus left the player's hands free, an indisput- able advantage; and it became possible at once to play in no less
2 See also a woodcut in John Derrick's Image of Ireland (1581), pi. iii. (Edinburgh ed. 1883).
3 See the fine volume Musical Instruments on the Irish and Scottish harps by Robert Bruce Armstrong (1904), vol. i. Vol. ii., which deals with the Welsh harp, has unfortunately been withdrawn from sale.
4 See for the medieval harp a careful article by Hortense Panum, " Harfe und Lyra im alten -Nord-Europa," in Intern. Mus. Ges. vol. vii. pt. I (Leipzig, 1905); and for references as to illuminated MSS., early woodcuts, paintings, &c. see Hugo Leichtentritt, " Was lehren uns die Bildwerke des 14-17 Jahrhunderts uber die Instru- mentalmusik ihrer Zeit ? " ibid. vol. vii. p. 3 (Leipzig, 1906).
6 See Nauwerk, " Die Hakenharfe, Die Vervoilkommnung des Mechanismus an der deutschen Harfe." in Allg. musik. Ztg. (Leipzig, 1815), p. 545 seq.
HARPENDEN— HARPIES
than eight major scales. By a sequence of improvements, in which two Frenchmen named Cousineau took an important part, the various defects inherent in Hochbrucker's plan became ameliorated. The pedals were doubled, and, the tuning of the instrument being changed from the key of Ei> to Ci>, it became possible to play in fifteen keys, thus exceeding the power of the keyboard instruments, over which the harp has another important advantage in the sim- plicity of the fingering, which is the same for every key.
It is to Sebastian Erard we owe the perfecting of the pedal harp (ng' 5)> a triumph he gained in Paris by unremitting studies begun when he adopted a " fork " mechanism in 1786 and ended in 1810 when he had attained com- plete success with the double action pedal mechanism already described above. Erard's merit was not confined to this improvement only; he modified the structure of the comb that conceals the mechanism, and constructed the sound-body of the instrument upon a modern principle more advantageous to the tone.
Notwithstanding these improvements and the great beauty of tone the harp possesses, the domestic use of it in modern times has almost disappeared. The great cost of a good harp, and the trouble to many amateurs of tuning, may have led to the supplanting of the harp by the more convenient and useful pianoforte. With this comes naturally a diminution in FIG. 5. the number of solo-players on the instru-
Modern Erard Harp. ment. Were it not for the increasing use of the harp in the orchestra, the colour of its tone having attracted the masters of instrumentation, so that the great scores of Meyerbeer and Gounod, of Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner are not complete without it, we should perhaps know little more of the harp than of the dulcimer, in spite of the efforts of distinguished virtuosi whose devotion to their instrument maintains its technique on an equality with that of any other, even the most in public favour. The first record of the use of harps in the orchestra occurs in the account of the Ballet comique de la royne performed at the chateau de Moutiers on the occasion of the marriage of Mary of Lorraine with the due de Joyeuse in 1581, when harps formed part of the concert de musique.
See in addition to the works already referred to, Engel's Musical Instruments in the South Kensington Museum (1874); and the articles " Harp," in Rees's Cyclopaedia, written by Dr Burney, in Stainer and Barrett's Dictionary of Musical Terms (1876), and in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. On the origins of the instrument see Proceedings of British Association (1904) (address of president of anthropological section). (K. S. ; A. J. H.)
HARPENDEN, an urban district in the Mid or St Albans parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England, 25 m. N.W. by N. from London by the Midland railway, served also by a branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 4725. It is a favourite outlying residential district for those whose work lies in London. The church of St Nicholas is a modern recon- struction with the exception of the Perpendicular tower. In the Lawes Testimonial Laboratory there is a vast collection of samples of experimentally grown produce, annual products, ashes and soils. Sir John Bennet Lawes (d. 1900) provided an endowment of £100,000 for the perpetuation of the agricultural experiments which he inaugurated here at his seat of Rothamsted Park. The success of his association of chemistry with botany is shown by the fact that soil has been made to bear wheat without intermission for upwards of half a century without manure. The country neighbouring to Harpenden is very pleasant, includ- ing the gorse-covered Harpenden Common and the narrow well-wooded valley of the upper Lea.
HARPER'S FERRY, a town of Jefferson county, West Virginia, U.S.A., finely situated at the confluence of the Potomac and Shenandoah rivers (which here pass through a beautiful gorge in the Blue Ridge), 55 m. N.W. of Washington. Pop. (1900) 896; (19101 766. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio railway, which crosses the Potomac here, by the Winchester & Potomac railway (Baltimore & Ohio) of which it is a terminus, and by boats on the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal, which passes along the Maryland side of the Potomac. Across the Potomac on the north rise the Maryland Heights; across the Shenandoah, on the West Virginia side, the Virginia or Loudoun Heights: and behind the town to the W. the Bolivar Heights. A United States arsenal and armoury were established at Harper's Ferry in 1796, the site being chosen because of the good water-power;
these were seized on the i6th of October 1859 by John Brown (q.v.), the abolitionist, and some 21 of his followers. For four months before the raid Brown and his men lived on the Kennedy Farm, in Washington county, Maryland, about 4 m. N.W. of Harper's Ferry. The engine-house in which Brown was captured was exhibited at the Columbian Exposition at Chicago and was later rebuilt on Bolivar Heights; a marble pillar, marked " John Brown's Fort," has been erected on its original site. On Camp Hill is Storer College (state-aided), a normal school for negroes, which was established under Free Baptist control in 1867, and has academic, normal, biblical, musical and industrial departments.
The first settlement here was made about 1747 by Robert Harper, who ran a ferry across the Potomac. The position of Harper's Ferry at the lower end of the Shenandoah Valley rendered it a place of strategic importance during the Civil War. On the i8th of April 1861, the day after Virginia passed her ordinance of secession, when a considerable force of Virginia militia under General Kenton Harper approached the town — an attack having been planned in Richmond two days before — the Federal garrison of 45 men under Lieutenant Roger Jones set fire to the arsenal and fled. Within the next few days large numbers of Confederate volunteers assembled here; and Harper was succeeded in command (27th April) by " Stonewall " Jackson, who was in turn succeeded by Brigadier-General Joseph E. Johnston on the 23rd of May. Johnston thought that the place was unimportant, and withdrew when (i^th June) the Federal forces under General Robert Patterson and Colonel Lew Wallace approached, and Harper's Ferry was again occupied by a Federal garrison. In September 1862, during General Lee's first invasion of the North, General McClellan advised that the place be abandoned in order that the 10,000 men defending it might be added to his fighting force, but General Halleck would not consent, so that when Lee needed supplies from the Shenandoah Valley he was blocked by the garrison, then under the command of Colonel Dixon S. Miles. On Jackson's approach they were distributed as follows: about 7000 men on Bolivar Heights, about 2000 on Maryland Heights, and about 1800 on the lower ground. On the i3th of September General Lafayette McLaws carried Maryland Heights and General John G. Walker planted a battery on Loudoun Heights. On the I4th there was some fighting, but early on the i $th, as Jackson was about to make an assault on Bolivar Heights, the garrison, surrounded by a superior force, surrendered. The total Federal loss (including the garrisons at Winchester and Martinsburg) amounted to 44 killed (the commander was mortally wounded), 12,520 prisoners, and 13,000 small arms. For this terrible loss to the Union army the responsibility seems to have been General Halleck's, though the blame was officially put on Colonel Miles, .who died immediately after the surrender. Jackson rejoined Lee on the following day in time to take part in the battle of Antietam, and after the battle General McClellan placed a strong garrison (the I2th Corps) at Harper's Ferry. In June 1863 the place was again abandoned to the Confederates on their march to Pennsylvania. After their defeat at Gettysburg, the town again fell into the hands of the Federal troops, and it remained in their possession until the end of the war. On the 4th of July 1864 General Franz Sigel, who was then in command here, withdrew his troops to Maryland Heights, and from there resisted Early's attempt to enter the town and to drive the Federal garrison from Maryland Heights. Harper's Ferry was seriously damaged by a flood in the Shenandoah in October 1878.
HARPIES (Gr. "Aprruitu, older form 'Aptiruicu, " swift robbers "), in ancient mythology, the personification of the sweep- ing storm-winds. In Homer, where they appear indifferently under the name of apirtucu and 6vf\\ai, their function is to carry off those whose sudden disappearance is desired by the gods. Only one of them is there mentioned (Iliad, xvi. 150) by name, Podarge, the mother of the coursers of Achilles by Zephyrus, the generative wind. According to Hesiod (Thcog. 265) they are two in number, Ae'llo and Ocypete, daughters of Thaumas and Elect ra, winged
HARPIGNIES— HARPSICHORD
goddesses with beautiful locks, swifter than winds and birds in their flight, and their domain is the air. In later times their number was increased (Celaeno being a frequent addition and their leader in Virgil), and they were described as hateful and repulsive creatures, birds with the faces of old women, the ears of bears, crooked talons and hanging breasts; even in Aeschylus (Eumenides, 50) they appear as ugly and misshapen monsters. Their function of snatching away mortals to the other world brings them into connexion with the Erinyes, with whom they are often confounded. On the so-called Harpy monument from Lycia, now in the British Museum, the Harpies appear carrying off some small figures, supposed to be the daughters of Pandareus, unless they are intended to represent departed souls. The repulsive character of the Harpies is more especially seen in the legend of Phineus, king of Salmydessus in Thrace (Apollodorus i. 9, 21 ; see also Diod. Sic. iv. 43). Having been deprived of his sight by the gods for his ill-treatment of his sons by his first wife (or for having revealed the future to mortals), he was con- demned to be tormented by two Harpies, who carried off what- ever food was placed before him. On the arrival of the Argonauts, Phineus promised to give them particulars of the course they should pursue and of the dangers that lay before them, if they would deliver him from his tormentors. Accordingly, when the Harpies appeared as usual to carry off the food from Phineus's table, they were driven off and pursued by Calais and Zetes, the sons of Boreas, as far as the Strophades islands in the Aegean. On promising to cease from molesting Phineus, their lives were spared. Their place of abode is variously placed in the Strophades, the entrance to the under-world, or a cave in Crete. According to Cecil Smith, Journal of Hellenic Studies, xiii. (1892-1893), the Harpies are the hostile spirits of the scorching south wind; E. Rohde (Rlieinisches Museum, i., 1895) regards them as spirits of the storm, which at the bidding of the gods carry off human beings alive to the under-world or some spot beyond human ken.
See articles in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie and Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites. In the article GREEK ART, fig. 14 gives a representation of the winged Harpies.
HARPIGNIES, HENRI (1819- ), French landscape painter, born at Valenciennes in 1819, was intended by his parents for a business career, but his determination to become an artist was so strong that it conquered all obstacles, and he was allowed at the age of twenty-seven to enter Achard's atelier in Paris. From this painter he acquired a groundwork of sound constructive draughtsmanship, which is so marked a feature of his landscape painting. After two years under this exacting teacher he went to Italy, whence he returned in 1850. During the next few years he devoted himself to the painting of children in landscape setting, and fell in with Corot and the other Barbizon masters, whose principles and methods are to a certain extent re- flected in his own personal art. To Corot he was united by a bond of warm friendship, and the two artists went together to Italy in 1860. On his return, he scored his first great success at the Salon, in 1861, with his " Lisiere de bois sur les bords de 1'Allier." After that year he was a regular exhibitor at the old Salon; in 1886 he received his first medal for " Le Soir dans la campagne de Rome," which was acquired for the Luxembourg Gallery. Many of his best works were painted at Herisson in the Bourbonnais, as well as in the Nivernais and the Auvergne. Among his chief pictures are " Soir sur les bords de la Loire " (1861), "Les Corbeaux" (1865), " Le Soir" (1866), " Le Saut-du-Loup " (1873), " La Loire " (1882), and " Vue de Saint-Prive " (1883). He also did some decorative work for the Paris Opera — the " Vallee d'Egerie " panel, which he Ishowed at the Salon of 1870.
HARP-LUTE, or DITAL HARP, one of the many attempts to revive the popularity of the guitar and to increase its compass, invented in 1798 by Edward Light. The harp-lute owes the first part of its name to the characteristic mechanism for shortening the effective length of the strings; its second name— dital harp — emphasizes the nature of the stops, which are worked by the thumb in contradistinction to the pedals of the harp worked
by the feet. It consists of a pear-shaped body, to which is added a curved neck supported on a front pillar or arm springing from the body, and therefore reminiscent of the harp. There are 12 catgut strings. The curved fingerboard, almost parallel with the neck, is provided with frets, and has in addition a thumb- key for each string, by means of which the accordance of the string is mechanically raised a semitone at will. The dital or key, on being depressed, acts upon a stop-ring or eye, which draws the string down against the fret, and thus shortens its effective length. The fingers then stop the strings as usual over the remaining frets. A further improvement was patented in 1816 as the British harp-lute. Other attempts possessing less practical merit than the dital harp were the lyra-guitarre, which appeared in Germany at the beginning of the igth century; the accord-guitarre, towards the middle of the same century; and the keyed guitar. (K. S.)
HARPOCRATES, originally an Egyptian deity, adopted by the Greeks, and worshipped in later times both by Greeks and Romans. In Egypt, Harpa-khruti, Horus the child, was one of the forms of Horus, the sun-god, the child of Osiris. He was supposed to carry on war against the powers of darkness, and hence Herodotus (ii. 144) considers him the same as the Greek Apollo. He was represented in statues with his finger on his mouth, a symbol of childhood. The Greeks and Romans, not understanding the meaning of this attitude, made him the god of silence (Ovid, Metam. ix. 691), and as such he became a favourite deity with the later mystic schools of philosophy.
See articles by G. Lafaye in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites, and by E. Meyer (s.v . " Horos ") in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie.
HARPOCRATION, VALERIUS, Greek grammarian of Alex- andria. He is possibly the Harpocration mentioned by Julius Capitolinus (Life of Verus, 2) as the Greek tutor of Antoninus Verus (and century A.D.); some authorities place him much later, on the ground that he borrowed from Athenaeus. He is the author of a Ae!-iK6v (or Ilept rlav Xe£ewj') Tuvotna. prjropuv, which has come down to us in an incomplete form. The work contains, in more or less alphabetical order, notes on well-known events and persons mentioned by the orators, and explanations of legal and commercial expressions. As nearly all the lexicons to the Greek orators have been lost, Harpocration's work is especially valuable. Amongst his authorities were the writers of Atthides (histories of Attica), the grammarian Didymus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and the lexicographer Dionysius, son of Tryphon. The book also contains contributions to the history of Attic oratory and Greek literature generally. Nothing is known of an '\vdripSiv avva-yuyri, a sort of anthology or chrestomathy attributed to him by Suidas. A series of articles in the margin of a Cambridge MS. of the lexicon forms the basis of the Lexicon rheloricum Canlabrigiense (see DOBREE, P. P.). *
The best edition is by W. Dindprf (1853); see also J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, i. (1906), p. 325; C. Boysen, De Harpocrationis fontibus (Kiel, 1876).
HARPOON (from Fr. harpon, a grappling-iron, O. Fr. harpe, a dog's claw, an iron clamp for fastening stones together; the source of these words is the Lat. harpago, harpa, &c., formed from Gr. aprajri, hook, apwa^tiv, to snatch, tear away, cf. " harpy "), barbed spear, particularly one used for spearing whales or other large fish, and either thrown by hand or fired from a gun (see WHALE-FISHERY).
HARPSICHORD, HARPSICON, DOUBLE VIRGINALS (Fr. clavecin; Ger. Clavicymbel, Kiel-Flilgel; Ital. arpicordo, cembalo, clavi- cembalo, graveccmbalo; Dutch, clavisinbal) , a large keyboard instrument (see PIANOFORTE), belonging to the same family as the virginal and spinet, but having 2, 3, or even 4 strings to each note, and a case of the harp or wing shape, afterwards adopted for the grand pianoforte. J. S. Bach's harpsichord, preserved in the museum of the Hochschule fiir Musik at Charlottenburg, has two manuals and 4 strings to each note, one 16 ft., two 8 ft. and one 4 ft. By means of stops the performer has within his power a number of combinations for varying the tone and dynamic power. In all instruments of the harpsichord family
i6
HARPY— HARRAR
the strings, instead of being struck by tangents as in the clavi- chord, or by hammers as in the pianoforte, are plucked by means of a quill firmly embedded in the centred tongue of a jack or upright placed on the back end of the key-lever. When the finger depresses a key, the jack is thrown up, and in passing the crow-quill catches the string and twangs it. It is this twanging of the string which produces the brilliant incisive tone peculiar to the harpsichord family. What these instruments gain in brilliancy of tone, however, they lose in power of expression and of accent. The impossibility of commanding any emphasis necessarily created for the harpsichord an individual technique which influenced the music composed for it to so great an extent that it cannot be adequately rendered upon the pianoforte.
The harpsichord assumed a position of great importance during the i6th and lyth centuries, more especially in the orchestra, which was under the leadership of' the harpsichord player. The most famous of all harpsichord makers, whose names form a guarantee for excellence, were the Ruckers, established at Antwerp from the last quarter of the i6th century. (K. S.)
HARPY, a large diurnal bird of prey, so named after the mythological monster of the classical poets (see HARPIES), — the Thrasaetus harpyia of modern ornithologists — an inhabitant of the warmer parts of America from Southern Mexico to Brazil. Though known since the middle of the iyth century, its habits have come very little under the notice of naturalists, and what is said of them by the older writers must be received with some
-^
Harpy.
suspicion. A cursory inspection of the bird, which is not un- frequently brought alive to Europe, its size, and its enormous bill and talons, at once suggest the vast powers of destruction imputed to it, and are enough to account for the stories told of its ravages on mammals — sloths, fawns, peccaries and spider- monkeys. It has even been asserted to attack the human race. How much of this is fabulous there seems no means at present of determining, but some of the statements are made by veracious travellers — D'Orbigny and Tschudi. It is not uncommon in the forests of the isthmus of Panama, and Salvin says (Proc. Zool. Society, 1864, p. 368) that its flight is slow and heavy. Indeed its owl-like visage, its short wings and soft plumage, do not in- dicate a bird of very active habits, but the weapons of offence with which it is armed show that it must be able to cope with vigorous prey. Its appearance is sufficiently striking — the head and lower parts, except a pectoral band, white, the former
adorned with an erectile crest, the upper parts dark grey banded with black, the wings dusky, and the tail barred; but the huge bill and powerful scutellated legs most of all impress the be- holder. The precise affinities of the haroy cannot be said to have been determined. By some authors it is referred to the eagles, by others to the buzzards, and by others again to the hawks; but possibly the first of these alliances is the most likely to be true. (A. N.)
HARRAN, HARAN or CHARRAN (Sept. Happav or Kappa : Strabo, Kdppcu: Pliny, Carrae or Carrhae; Arab. Harrdn), in biblical history the place where Terah halted after leaving Ur, and ap- parently the birthplace of Abraham, a town on the stream Jullab, some nine hours' journey from Edessa in Syria. At this point the road from Damascus joins the highway between Nineveh and Carchemish, and Haran had thus considerable military and commercial value. As a strategic position it is mentioned in inscriptions as early as the time of Tiglath Pileser I., about noo B.C., and subsequently by Sargon II., who restored the privileges lost at the rebellion which led to the con- quest referred to in 2 Kings xix. 12 C = Isa. xxxvii. 12). It was the centre of a considerable commerce (Ezek. xxvii. 23), and one of its specialities was the odoriferous gum derived from the strobus (Pliny, H.N. xii. 40). It was here that Crassus in his eastern expedition was attacked and slain by the Parthians (53 B.C.) ; and here also the emperor Caracalla was murdered at the instigation of Macrinus (A.D. 217). Haran was the chief home of the moon-god Sin, whose temple was rebuilt by several kings, among them Assur-bani-pal and Nabunidus and Herodian (iv. 13, 7) mentions the town as possessing in his day a temple of the moon. In the middle ages it is mentioned as having been the seat of a particular heathen sect, that of the Haranite Sabeans. It retained its importance down to the period of the Arab ascendancy; but by Abulfeda it is mentioned as having before his time fallen into decay. It is now wholly in ruins. The Yahwistic writer (Gen. xxvii. 43) makes it the home of Laban and connects it with Isaac and Jacob. But we cannot thus put Haran in Aramnaharaim; the home of the Labanites is rather to be looked for in the very similar word Hauran.
HARRAR (or HARAR), a city of N.E. Africa, in 8° 45' N., 42° 36' E., capital of a province of Abyssinia and 220 m. S.S.W. of the ports of Zaila (British) and Jibuti (French) on the Gulf of Aden. With Jibuti it is connected by a railway (188 m. long) and carriage-road. Harrar is built on the slopes of a hill at an elevation of over 5000 ft. A lofty stone wall, pierced by five gates and flanked by twenty-four towers, encloses the city, which has a population of about 40,000. The streets are steep, narrow, dirty and unpaved, the roadways consisting of rough boulders. The houses are in general made of undressed stone and mud and are flat-topped, the general aspect of the city being Oriental and un-Abyssinian. A few houses, including the palace of the governor and the foreign consulates, are of more elaborate and solid construction than the majority of the build- ings. There are several mosques and an Abyssinian church (of the usual circular construction) built of stone. Harrar is a city of considerable commercial importance, through it passing all the merchandise of southern Abyssinia, Kaffa and Galla land. The chief traders are Abyssinians, Armenians and Greeks. The principal article of export is coffee, which is grown extensively in the neighbouring hills and is of the finest quality. Besides coffee there is a large trade in durra, the kat plant (used by the Mahommedans as a drug), ghee, cattle, mules and camels, skins and hides, ivory and gums. The import trade is largely in cotton goods, but every kind of merchandise is included.
Harrar is believed to owe its foundation to Arab immigrants from the Yemen in the 7th century of the Christian era. In the region of Somaliland, now the western part of the British pro- tectorate of that name, the Arabs established the Moslem state of Adel or Zaila, with their capital at Zaila on the Gulf of Aden. In the I3th century the sultans of Adel enjoyed great power. In 1521 the then sultan Abubekr transferred the seat of govern- ment to Harrar, probably regarding Zaila as too exposed to the attacks of the Turkish and Portuguese navies then contending
HARRATIN— HARRIGAN
for the mastery of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Abubekr's successor was Mahommed III., Ahmed ibn Ibrahim el-Ghazi (1507-1543), surnamed Gran (Granye), the left-handed. He was not an Arab but, probably, of Somali origin. The son of a noted warrior, he quickly rose to supreme power, becoming sultan or amir in 1525. He is famous for his invasion of Abys- sinia, of which country he was virtual master for several years. From the beginning of the iyth century Adel suffered greatly from the ravages of pagan Galla tribes, and Harrar sank to the position of an amirate of little importance. It was first visited by a European in 1854 when (Sir) Richard Burton spent ten days there in the guise of an Arab. In 1875 Harrar was occupied by an Egyptian force under Raouf Pasha, by whose orders the amir was strangled. The town remained in the possession of Egypt until 1885, when the garrison was withdrawn in consequence of the rising of the Mahdi in the Sudan. The Egyptian garrison and many Egyptian civilians, in all 6500 persons, left Harrar between November 1884 and the 25th of April 1885, when a son of the ruler who had been deposed by Egypt was installed as amir, the arrangement being carried out under the super- intendence of British officers. The new amir held power until January 1887, in which month Harrar was conquered by Menelek II., king of Shoa (afterwards emperor of Abyssinia). The governorship of Harrar was by Menelek entrusted to Ras Makonnen, who held the post until his death in 1906.
The Harrari proper are of a distinct stock from the neigh- bouring peoples, and speak a special language. Harrarese is " a Semitic graft inserted into an indigenous stock " (Sir R. Burton, First Footsteps in East Africa). The Harrari are Mahommedans of the Shafa'i or Persian sect, and they employ the solar year and the Persian calendar. Besides the native population there are in Harrar colonies of Abyssinians, Somalis and Gallas. By the Somalis the place is called Adari, by the Gallas Adaray.
See ABYSSINIA; SOMALILAND. Also P. Paulitschke, Harar: Forschungsreise nach den Som&l- und Calla-Landern Ost-Afrikas (Leipzig, 1888).
HARRATIN, black Berbers, dwelling in Tidikelt and other Saharan oases. Many of them are blacker than the average negro. In physique, however, they are true to the Berber type, being of handsome appearance with European features and well- proportioned bodies. They are the result of an early crossing with the Sudanese negro races, though to-day they have all the pride of the Berbers (?.».), and do not live with or intermarry among negroes.
HARRIER, or HEN-HARRIER, name given to certain birds of prey which were formerly very abundant in parts of the British Islands, from their habit of harrying poultry. The first of these names has now become used in a generic sense for all the species ranked under the genus Circus of Lacepede, and the second con- fined to the particular species which is the Falco cyaneus of Linnaeus and the Circus cyaneus of modern ornithologists.
One European species, C. aeruginosus, though called in books the marsh-harrier, is far more commonly known in England and Ireland as the moor-buzzard. But harriers are not, like buzzards, arboreal in their habits, and always affect open country, generally, though not invariably, preferring marshy or fenny districts, for snakes and frogs form a great part of their ordinary food. On the ground their carriage is utterly unlike that of a buzzard, and their long wings and legs render it easy to distinguish the two groups when taken in the hand. All the species also have a more or less well-developed ruff or frill of small thickset feathers surrounding the lower part of the head, nearly like that seen in owls, and accordingly many systematists consider that the genus Circus, though undoubtedly belonging to the Falconidae, connects that family with the Striges. No osteological affinity, however, can be established between the harriers and any section of the owls, and the superficial resemblance will have to be explained in some other way. Harriers are found almost all over the world,1 and
1 The distribution of the different species is rather curious, while the range of some is exceedingly wide, — one, C. maillardi, seems to be limited to the island of Reunion (Bourbon).
fifteen species are recognized by Bowdler Sharpe (Cat. Birds Brit. Museum, i. pp. 50-73). In most if not all the harriers the sexes differ greatly in colour, so much so that for a long while the males and females of one of the commonest and best known, the C. cyaneus above mentioned, were thought to be distinct .species, and were or still are called in various European languages by different names. The error was maintained with the greater persistency since the young males, far more abundant than the adults, wear much the same plumage as their mother, and it was not until after Montagu's observations were published at the
v»
vV^
Hen- Harrier (Male and Female).
beginning of the ipth century that the " ringtail," as she was called (the Falco pygargus of Linnaeus), was generally admitted to be the female of the " hen-harrier." But this was not Montagu's only good service as regards this genus. He proved the hitherto unexpected existence of a second species,2 subject to the same diversity of plumage. This was called by him the ash-coloured falcon, but it now generally bears his name, and is known as Montagu's harrier, C. cineraceus. In habits it is very similar to the hen-harrier, but it has longer wings, and its range is not so northerly, for while the hen-harrier extends to Lapland, Mon- tagu's is but very rare in Scotland, though in the south of England it is the most common species. Harriers indeed in the British Islands are rapidly becoming things of the past. Their nests are easily found, and the birds when nesting are easily destroyed. In the south-east of Europe, reaching also to the Cape of Good Hope and to India, there is a fourth species, the C. swainsoni of some writers, the C. pallidus of others. In North America C. cyaneus is represented by a kindred form, C. hudsonius, usually regarded as a good species, the adult male of which is always to be recognized by its rufous markings beneath, in which character it rather resembles C. cineraceus, but it has not the long wings of that species. South America has in C. cinereus another representative form, while China, India and Australia possess more of this type. Thus there is a section in which the males have a strongly contrasted black -and grey plumage, and finally there is a group of larger forms allied to the European C. aeru- ginosus, wherein a grey dress is less often attained, of which the South African C. raniwrus and the New Zealand C. gouldi are examples. (A. N.)
HARRIGAN, EDWARD (1845- ), American actor, was born in New York of Irish parents on the 26th of October 1845. He made his first appearance in San Francisco in 1867, and soon afterwards formed a stage partnership with Tony Hart, whose real name was Anthony Cannon. As " Harrigan and Hart," they had a great success in the presentation of types of low life in New York. Beginning as simple sketches, these were gradually worked up into plays, with occasional songs, set to popular music
8 A singular mistake, which has been productive of further error, was made by Albin, who drew his figure (Hist. Birds, ii. pi. 5) from a specimen of one species, and coloured it from a specimen of the other.
i8
HARRIMAN, E. H.— HARRINGTON, J.
by David Braham. The titles of these plays indicate their character, The Mulligan Guards, Squatter Sovereignty, A Leather Patch, The O'Regans. The partnership with Hart lasted from 1871-1884. Subsequently Harrigan played in different cities of the United States, one of his favourite parts being George Coggs- well in Old Lavender.
HARRIMAN, EDWARD HENRY (1848-1909), American financier and railroad magnate, son of the Rev. Orlando Harriman, rector of St George's Episcopal church, Hempstead, L.I., was born at Hempstead on the 25th of February 1848. He became a broker's clerk in New York at an early age, and in 1870 was able to buy a seat on the New York Stock Exchange on his own account. For a good many years there was nothing sensational in his success, but he built up a considerable business connexion and prospered in his financial operations. Meanwhile he carefully mastered the situation affecting American railways. In this respect he was assisted by his friendship with Mr Stuy- vesant Fish, who, on becoming vice-president of the Illinois Central in 1883, brought Harriman upon the directorate, and in 1887, being then president, made Harriman vice-president; twenty years later it was Harriman who dominated the finance of the Illinois Central, and Fish, having become his opponent, was dropped from the board. It was not till 1898, however, that his career as a great railway organizer began with his formation, by the aid of the bankers, Kuhn, Loeb & Co., of a syndicate to acquire the Union Pacific line, which was then in the hands of a receiver and was generally regarded as a hopeless failure. It was soon found that a new power had arisen in the railway world. Having brought the Union Pacific out of bankruptcy into prosperity, and made it an efficient instead of a decaying line, he utilized his position to draw other lines within his control, notably the Southern Pacific in 1901. These extensions of his power were not made without friction, and his abortive contest in 1901 with James J. Hill for the control of the Northern Pacific led to one of the most serious financial crises ever known on Wall Street. But in the result he became the dominant factor in American railway matters. At his death, on the 9th of September 1909, his influence was estimated to extend over 60,000 m. of track, with an annual earning power of $700,000,000 or over. Astute and unscrupulous manipulation of the stock markets, and a capacity for the hardest of bargaining and the most determined warfare against his rivals, had their place in this success, and Harriman's methods excited the bitterest criticism, culminating in a stern denunciation from President Roosevelt himself in 1907. Nevertheless, besides acquiring colossal wealth for himself, he helped to create for the American public a vastly improved railway service, the benefit of which survived all controversy as to the means by which he triumphed over the obstacles in his way.
HARRIMAN, a city of Roane county, Tennessee, U.S.A., on the Emory river, about 35 m.W. by S.of Knoxville. Pop. (1900) 3442 (5 1 6 being negroes); (1910) 3061. Harriman is served by the Har- riman & North Eastern, the Tennessee Central, and the Southern railways. It is the seat of the East Tennessee Normal and Industrial Institute, for negroes, and of the American University of Harriman (Christian Church, coeducational; 1893), which comprises primary, preparatory, collegiate, Bible school, civic research, commercial, music and art departments, and in 1907- 1908 had 12 instructors and 317 students. Near the city are large deposits of iron and an abundance of coal and timber. Among manufactures are cotton products, farming tools, leather, tannic acid, furniture and flour. Harriman was founded in 1890 by a land company. A clause in this company's by-laws requires that every conveyance of real estate by the company " shall contain a provision forbidding the use of the property or any building thereon, for the purpose of making, storing or selling intoxicating beverages as such." Harriman was chartered as a city in 1891, and its charter was revised in 1899.
HARRINGTON, EARLS OF. The first earl of Harrington was the diplomatist and politician, William Stanhope (c. 1690- 1756), a younger son of John Stanhope of Elvaston, Derbyshire, and a brother of Charles Stanhope (1673-1760), an active
politician during the reign of George I. His ancestor, Sir John Stanhope (d. 1638). was a half-brother of Philip Stanhope, ist earl of Chesterfield. Educated at Eton, William Stanhope entered the army and served in Spain, but soon he turned his attention to more peaceful pursuits, went on a mission to Madrid and represented his country at Turin. When peace was made between England and Spain in 1720 Stanhope became British ambassador to the latter country, and he retained this position until March 1727, having built up his reputation as a diplomatist during a difficult period. In 1729 he had some part in arranging the treaty of Seville between England, France and Spain, and for his services in this matter he was created Baron Harrington in January 1730. Laterin thesame year he was appointed secretary of state for the northern department under Sir Robert Walpole, but, like George II., he was anxious to assist the emperor Charles VI. in his war with France, while Walpole favoured a policy of peace. Although the latter had his way Harrington remained secretary until the great minister's fall in 1742, when he was transferred to the office of president of the council and was created earl of Harrington and Viscount Petersham. In 1744, owing to the influence of his political allies, the Pelhams, he returned to his former post of secretary of state, but he soon lost the favour of the king, and this was the principal cause why he left office in October 1746. He was lord lieutenant of Ireland from 1747 to 1751, and he died in London on the 8th of December 1756.
The earl's successor was his son, William (1719-1779), who entered the army, was wounded at Fontenoy and became a general in 1770. He was a member of parliament for about ten years and he died on the ist of April 1779. This earl's wife Caroline (1722-1784), daughter of Charles Fitzroy, 2nd duke of Grafton, was a noted beauty, but was also famous for her eccentricities. Their elder son, Charles(i753-i829),whobccame the 3rd earl, was a distinguished soldier. He served with the British army during the American War of Independence and attained the rank of general in 1802. From 1805 to 1812 he was commander-in-chief in Ireland; he was sent on diplomatic errands to Vienna and to Berlin, and he died at Brighton on the i jth of September 1829.
Charles Stanhope, 4th earl of Harrington (1780-1851), the eldest son of the 3rd earl, was known as Lord Petersham until he succeeded to the earldom in 1829. He was very well known in society owing partly to his eccentric habits; he dressed like the French king Henry IV., and had other personal peculiarities. He married the actress, Maria Foote, but when he died in March 1851 he left no sons, and his brother Leicester Fitzgerald Charles (1784-1862) became the sth earl. This nobleman was a soldier and a politician of advanced views, who is best known as a worker with Lord Byron in the cause of Greek independence. He was in Greece in 1823 and 1824, where his relations with Byron were not altogether harmonious. He wrote A Sketch of the History and Influence of the Press in British India (1823); and Greece in 1823 and 1824 (English edition 1824, American edition 1825). His son Sydney Seymour Hyde, 6th earl (1845-1866), dying unmarried, was succeeded by a cousin, Charles Wyndham Stanhope (1809-1881), as 7th earl, and in 1881 the latter's son Charles Augustus Stanhope (b. 1844) became Sth earl of Harrington.
Before the time of the first earl of Harrington the Stanhope family had held the barony of Stanhope of Harrington, which was created in 1605 in favour of Sir John Stanhope (c. 1550-1621) of Harrington, Northamptonshire. Sir John was a younger son of Sir Michael Stanhope (d. 1552) of Shelford, Nottinghamshire, who was a brother- in-law of the protector Somerset. Sir Michael's support of Somerset cost him his life, as he was beheaded on the 26th of February 1552. Sir John was treasurer of the chamber from 1596 to 1616 and was a member of parliament for several years. He died on the 9th of March 1621, and when his only son Charles, 2nd baron (c. 1595-1675), died without issue in 1675 the barony became extinct.
HARRINGTON, or HARINGTON, JAMES (1611-1677), English political philosopher, was born in January 161 1 of an old Rutland- shire family. He was son of Sir Sapcotes Harrington of Rand, Lincolnshire, and great-nephew of the first Lord Harington of Exton (d. 1615). In 1629 he entered Trinity College, Oxford, as
HARRIOT— HARRIS, J.
a gentleman commoner. One of his tutors was the famous Chillingworth. After several years spent in travel, and as a soldier in the Dutch army, he returned to England and lived in retirement till 1646, when he was appointed to the suite of Charles I., at that time being conveyed from Newcastle as prisoner. Though republican in his ideas, Harrington won the king's regard and esteem, and accompanied him to the Isle of Wight. He roused, however, the suspicion of the parliament- arians and was dismissed: it is said that he was for a short time put in confinement because he would not swear to refuse assist- ance to the king should he attempt to escape. After Charles's death Harrington devoted his time to the composition of his Oceana, a work which pleased neither party. By order of Cromwell it was seized when passing through the press. Harrington, how- ever managed to secure the favour of the Protector's favourite daughter, Mrs Claypole; the work was restored to him, and appeared in 1656, dedicated to Cromwell. The views embodied in Oceana, particularly that bearing on vote by ballot and rota- tion of magistrates and legislators, Harrington and others (who in 1659 formed a club called the " Rota ") endeavoured to push practically, but with no success. In November 1661, by order of Charles II., Harrington was arrested, apparently without sufficient cause, on a charge of conspiracy, and was thrown into the Tower. Despite his repeated request no public trial could be obtained, and when at length his sisters obtained a writ of habeas corpus he was secretly removed to St Nicholas Island off Plymouth. There his health gave way owing to his drinking guaiacum on medical advice, and his mind appeared to be affected. Careful treatment restored him to bodily vigour, but his mind never wholly recovered. After his release he married, — at what date does not seem to be precisely known. He died on the nth of September 1677, and was buried next to Sir Walter Raleigh in St Margaret's, Westminster.
Harrington's writings consist of the Oceana, and of papers, pamphlets, aphorisms, even treatises, in defence of the Oceana. The Oceana is a hard, prolix, and in many respects heavy exposi- tion of an ideal constitution, " Oceana " being England, and the lawgiver Olphaus Megaletor, Oliver Cromwell. The details are elaborated with infinite care, even the salaries of officials being computed, but the main ideas are two in number, each with a practical corollary. The first is that the determining element of power in a state is property generally, property in land in particular; the second is that the executive power ought not to be vested for any considerable time in the same men or class of men. In accordance with the first of these, Harrington re- commends an agrarian law, limiting the portion of land held to that yielding a revenue of £3000, and consequently insisting on particular modes of distributing landed property. As a practical issue of the second he lays down the rule of rotation by ballot. A third part of the executive or senate are voted out by ballot every year (not being capable of being elected again for three years). Harrington explains very carefully how the state and its govern- ing parts are to be constituted by his scheme. Oceana contains many valuable ideas, but it is irretrievably dull.
His Works were edited with biography by John Toland in 1700; Toland's edition, with additions by Birch, appeared in 1747, and again in 1771. Oceana was reprinted by Henry Morley in 1887. See Dwight in Political Science Quarterly (March, 1887). Harrington has often been confused with his cousin Sir James Harrington, a member of the commission which tried Charles I., and afterwards excluded from the acts of pardon.
HARRIOT.or HARRIOTT, THOMAS (1560-1621), English mathe- matician and astronomer, was born at Oxford in 1560. After studying at St Mary Hall, Oxford, he became tutor to Sir Walter Raleigh, who appointed him in 1585 to the office of geographer to the second expedition to Virginia. Harriot published an account of this expedition in 1588, which was afterwards reprinted in Hakluyt's Voyages. On his return to England, after an absence of two years, he resumed his mathematical studies, and having made the acquaintance of Henry Percy, earl of Northumberland, distinguished for his patronage of men of science, he received from him a yearly pension of £120. He died at London on the 2nd of July 1621. A manuscript of
Harriot's entitled Ephemeris chrysometria is preserved in Sion College; and his Artis analyticae praxis ad aequationes alge- braicas resolvendas was published at London in 1631. His con- tributions to algebra are treated in the article ALGEBRA; Wallis's History of Algebra (1685) may also be consulted. From some papers of Harriot's, discovered in 1784, it would appear that he had either procured a telescope from Holland, or divined the construction of that instrument, and that he coincided in point of time with Galileo in discovering the spots on the sun's disk.
See Charles Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1815), and J. E. Montucla, Histoire des mathematigues (1758).
HARRIS, GEORGE, IST BARON (1746-1829), British general, was the son of the Rev George Harris, curate of Brasted, Kent, and was born on the i8th of March 1746. Educated at West- minster school and at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, he was commissioned to the Royal Artillery in 1760, transferring to an ensigncy in the 5th foot (Northumberland Fusiliers) in 1762. Three years la.ter he became lieutenant, and in 1771 captain. His first active service was in the American War of Independence, in which he served at Lexington, Bunker Hill (severely wounded) and in every engagement of Howe's army except one up to November 1778. By this time he had obtained his majority, and his next service was under Major-General Medows at Santa Lucia in 1778-1779, after which his regiment served as marines in Rodney's fleet. Later in 1779 he was for a time a prisoner of war. Shortly before his promotion to lieu- tenant-colonel in his regiment (1780) he married. After com- manding the 5th in Ireland for some years, he exchanged and went with General Medows to Bombay, and served with that officer in India until 1792, taking part in various battles and engagements, notably Lord Cornwallis's attack on Seringapatam. In 1794, after a short period of home service, he was again in India. In the same year he became major-general, and in 1796 local lieutenant-general in Madras. Up to 1800 he commanded the troops in the presidency, and for a short time he exercised the civil government as well. In December 1798 he was appointed by Lord Wellesley, the governor-general, to command the field army which was intended to attack Tipu Sahib, and in a few months Harris reduced the Mysore country and stormed the great stronghold of Seringapatam. His success established his reputation as a capable and experienced commander, and its political importance led to his being offered the reward (which he declined) of an Irish peerage. He returned home in 1800, became lieutenant-general in the army the following year, and attained the rank of full general in 1812. In 1815 he was made a peer of the United Kingdom under the title Baron Harris of Seringapatam and Mysore, and of Belmont, Kent. In 1820 he received the G.C.B., and in 1824 the governorship of Dumbarton Castle. Lord Harris died at Belmont in May 1829. He had been colonel of the 73rd Highlanders since 1800.
His descendant, the 4th Baron Harris (b. 1851), best known as a cricketer, was under-secretary for India (1883-1886), under- secretary for war (1886-1889) and governor of Bombay (1890-
1895).
See Rt. Hon. S. Lushington, Life of Lord Harris (London, 1840), and the regimental histories of the 5th Northumberland Fusiliers and 73rd Highlanders.
HARRIS, JAMES (1709-1780), English grammarian, was born at Salisbury on the zoth of July 1709. He was educated at the grammar school in the Close at Salisbury, and at Wadham College, Oxford. On leaving the university he was entered at Lincoln's Inn as a student of law, though not intended for the bar. The death of his father in 1733 placed him in possession of an independent fortune and of the house in Salisbury Close. He became a county magistrate, and represented Christchurch in parliament from 1761 till his death, and was comptroller to the queen from 1774 to 1780. He held office under Lord Grenville, retiring with him in 1765. The decided bent of his mind had always been towards the Greek and Latin classics; and to the study of these, especially of Aristotle, he applied himself with unremitting assiduity during a period of fourteen or fifteen
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HARRIS, J. C.— HARRIS, SIR W. S.
years. He published in 1744 three treatises — on art; on music, painting and poetry; and on happiness. In 1751 appeared the work by which he became best known, Hermes, a philosophical inquiry concerning universal grammar. He also published Philosophical Arrangements and Philosophical Inquiries. Harris was a great lover of music, and adapted the words for a selec- tion from Italian and German composers, published by the cathedral organist, James Corfe. He died on the 22nd of December 1780.
His works were collected and published in 1801, by his son, the first earl of Malmesbury, who prefixed a brief biography.
HARRIS, JOEL CHANDLER (1848-1908), American author, was born in Eatonton, Putnam county, Georgia, on the 8th of December 1848. He started as an apprentice to the printer's trade in the office of the Countryman, a weekly paper published on a plantation not far from his home. He then studied law, and practised for a short time in Forsyth, Ga., but soon took to journalism. He joined the staff of the Savannah Daily News in 1871, and in 1876 that of the Atlanta Constitution, of which he was an editor from 1890 to 1901, and in this capacity did much to further the cause of the New South. But his most distinctive contribution to this paper, and to American literature, consisted of his dialect pieces dealing with negro life and folklore. His stories are characterized by quaint humour, poetic feeling and homely philosophy; and " Uncle Remus," the principal character of most of them, is a remarkably vivid and real creation. The first collection of his stories was published in 1880 as Uncle Remus: his Songs and his Sayings. Among his later works are Nights with Uncle Remus (1883), Mingo and Other Sketches in Black and White (1884), Free Joe and Other Georgian Sketches (1887), Balaam and His Master and Other Sketches and Stories (1891), Uncle Remus and His Friends (1892), On the Plantation (1892), which is partly autobiographic, Sister Jane (1896), The Chronicles of Aunt Minervy Ann (1899), and The Tar- Baby and Other Rhymes of Uncle Remus (1904). More purely juvenile are Daddy Jake the Runaway and Other Stories (1889), Little Mr Thimblefinger and his Queer Country (1894) and its sequel Mr Rabbit at Home (1895), Aaron in the Wildwoods (1897), Plantation Pageants (1899), Told by Uncle Remus (1905), and Uncle Remus and Br'er Rabbit (1907). He was one of the compilers of the Life of Henry W. Grady, including his Writings and Speeches (1890) and wrote Stories of Georgia (1896), and Georgia from the Invasion of De Soto to Recent Times (1899). He died in Atlanta on the 3rd of July 1908.
HARRIS, JOHN (c. 1666-1719), English writer. He is best known as the editor of the Lexicon technicum, or Dictionary of the Arts and Sciences (1704), which ranks as the earliest of the long line of English encyclopaedias, and as the compiler of the Collection of Voyages and Travels which passes under his name. He was born about 1666, probably in Shropshire, and was a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, from 1684 to 1688. He was presented to the vicarage of Icklesham in Sussex, and subse- quently to the rectory of St Thomas, Winchelsea. In 1698 he was entrusted with the delivery of the seventh series of the Boyle lectures — Atheistical Objections against the Being of God and His Attributes fairly considered and fully refuted. Between 1702 and 1704 he delivered at the Marine Coffee House in Birchin Lane the mathematical lectures founded by Sir Charles Cox, and advertised himself as a mathematical tutor at Amen Corner. The friendship of Sir William Cowper, afterwards lord chancellor, secured for him the office of private chaplain, a prebend in Rochester cathedral (1708), and the rectory of the united parishes of St Mildred, Bread Street and St Margaret Moses, in addition to other preferments. He showed himself an ardent supporter of the government, and engaged in a bitter quarrel with the Rev. Charles Humphreys, who afterwards was chaplain to Dr Sacheverel. Harris was one of the early members of the Royal Society, and for a time acted as vice-president. At his death on the 7th of September 1719, he was busy completing an elaborate History of Kent. He is said to have died in poverty brought on by his own bad management of his affairs.
HARRIS, THOMAS LAKE (1823-1906), American spiritual- istic "prophet," was born at Fenny Stratford in Buckinghamshire, England, on the isth of May 1823. His parents were Calvinistic Baptists, and very poor. They settled at Utica, New York, when Harris was five years old. When he was about twenty Harris became a Universalist preacher, and then aSwedenborgian. He became associated about 1847 with a spiritualist of indifferent character named Davis. After Davis had been publicly exposed, Harris established a congregation in New York. About 1850 he professed to receive inspirations, and published some long poems. He had the gift of improvisation in a very high degree. About 1859 he preached in London, and is described as a man " with low, black eyebrows, black beard, and sallow countenance." He was an effective speaker, and his poetry was admired by many; Alfred Austin in his book The Poetry of the Period even devoted a chapter to Harris. He founded in 1861 a community at Wassaic, New York, and opened a bank and a mill, which he superintended. There he was joined by about sixty converts, including five orthodox clergymen, some Japanese people, some American ladies of position, and especially by Laurence Oliphant (q.ii.) with his wife and mother. The community — the Brother- hood of the New Life— decided to settle at the village of Brocton on the shore of Lake Erie. Harris established there a wine- making industry. In reply to the objections of teetotallers he said that the wine prepared by himself was filled with the divine breath so that all noxious influences were neutralized. Harris also built a tavern and strongly advocated the use of tobacco. He exacted complete surrender from his disciples — even the surrender of moral judgment. He taught that God was bi-sexual, and apparently, though not in reality, that the rule of society should be one of married celibacy. He professed to teach his community a change in the mode of respiration which was to be the visible sign of possession by Christ and the seal of immortality. The Oliphants broke away from therestraint about 1881, charging him with robbery and succeeding in getting back from him many thousands of pounds by legal proceedings. But while losing faith in Harris himself, they did not abandon his main teaching. In Laurence Oliphant's novel Masollam his view of Harris will be found. Briefly, he held that Harris was originally honest, greatly gifted, and possessed of certain psychical powers. But in the end he came to practise unbridled licence under the loftiest pretensions, made the profession of extreme disinterestedness a cloak to conceal his avarice, and demanded from his followers a blind and supple obedience. Harris in 1876 discontinued for a time public activities, but issued to a secret circle books of verse dwelling mainly on sexual questions. On these his mind ran from the first. In 1891 he announced that his body had been renewed, and that he had discovered the secret of the resuscitation of humanity. He pub- lished a book, Lyra triumphalis, dedicated to A. C. Swinburne. He also made a third marriage, and visited England intending to remain there. He was called back by a fire which destroyed large stocks of his wine, and remained in New York till 1903, when he visited Glasgow. His followers believed that he had attained the secret of immortal life on earth, and after his death on the 23rd of March 1906 declared that he was only sleeping. It was three months before it was acknowledged publicly that he was really dead. There can be little or no doubt as to the real character of Harris. His teaching was esoteric in form, but is a thinly veiled attempt to alter the ordering of sexual relations.
The authoritative biography from the side of his disciples is the Life byA. A. Cuthbert, published in Glasgow in 1908. It is full of the jargon of Harris's sect, but contains some biographical facts as well as many quotations. Mrs Oliphant's Life of Laurence Oliphant (1891) has not been shaken in any important particular, and Oli- phant's own portrait of Harris in Masollam is apparently unexag- gerated. But Harris had much personal magnetism, unbounded self-confidence, along with endless fluency, and to the last was believed in by some disciples of character and influence. (W. R. Ni.)
HARRIS, SIR WILLIAM SNOW (1701-1867), English electrician, was descended from an old family of solicitors at Plymouth, where he was born on the ist of April 1791. He received his early education at the Plymouth grammar-school,
HARRIS, W. T.— HARRISBURG
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and completed a course of medical studies at the university of Edinburgh, after which he established himself as a general medical practitioner in Plymouth. On his marriage in 1824 he resolved to abandon his profession on account of its duties interfering too much with his favourite study of electricity. As early as 1820 he had invented a new method of arranging the lightning conductors of ships, the peculiarity of which was that the metal was permanently fixed in the masts and extended throughout the hull; but it was only with great difficulty, and not till nearly thirty years afterwards, that his invention was adopted by the government for the royal navy. In 1826 he read a paper before the Royal Society " On the Relative Powers of various Metallic Substances as Conductors of Electricity," which led to his being elected a fellow of the society in 1831. Subse- quently, in 1834, 1836 and 1839, he read before the society several valuable papers on the elementary laws of electricity, and he also communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh various interesting accounts of his experiments and discoveries in the same field of inquiry. In 1835 he received the Copley gold medal from the Royal Society for his papers on the laws of electricity of high tension, and in 1839 he was chosen to deliver the Bakerian lecture. Meanwhile, although a government commission had recommended the general adoption of his conductors in the royal navy, and the government had granted him an annuity of £300 "in consideration of services in the cultivation of science," the naval authorities continued to offer various objections to his invention; to aid in removing these he in 1843 published his work on Thunderstorms, and also about the same time contributed a number of papers to the Nautical Magazine illustrative of damage by lightning. His system was actually adopted in the Russian navy before he succeeded in removing the prejudices against it in England, and in 1845 the emperor of Russia, in acknowledgment of his services, presented him with a valuable ring and vase. At length, the efficiency of his system being acknowledged, he received in 1847 the honour of knighthood, and subsequently a grant of £5000. After suc- ceeding in introducing his invention into general use Harris resumed his labours in the field of original research, but as he failed to realize the advances that had been made by the new school of science his application resulted in no discoveries of much value. His manuals of Electricity, Galvanism and Magnetism, published between 1848 and 1856, were, however, written with great clearness, and passed through several editions. He died at Plymouth on the 22nd of January 1867, while having in preparation a Treatise on Frictional Electricity, which was published posthumously in the same year, with a memoir of the author by Charles Tomlinson.
HARRIS, WILLIAM TORREY (1835-1909), American edu- cationist, was born in North Killingly, Connecticut, on the xoth of September 1835. He studied at Phillips Andover Academy, Andover, Massachusetts, and entered Yale, but left in his junior year (1857) to accept a position as a teacher of shorthand in the St Louis, Missouri, public schools. Advancing through the grades of principal and assistant superintendent, he was city superintendent of schools from 1867 until 1880. In 1858, under the stimulus of Henry C. Brockmeyer, Harris became interested in modern German philosophy in general, and in particular in Hegel, whose works a small group, gather- ing about Harris and Brockmeyer, began to study in 1859. From 1867 to 1893 Harris edited The Journal of Speculative Philosophy (22 vols.), which was the quarterly organ of the Philosophical Society founded in 1866. The Philosophical Society died out before 1874, when Harris founded in St Louis a Kant Club, which lived for fifteen years. In 1873, with Miss Susan E. Blow, he established in St Louis the first permanent public-school kindergarten in America. He represented the United States Bureau of Education at the International Con- gress of Educators at Brussels in 1880. In 1889 he represented the United States Bureau of Education at the Paris Exposition, and from 1889 to 1906 was United States commissioner of education. In 1899 the university of Jena gave him the honorary degree of Doctor of Philosophy for his work on Hegel. In 1906
the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching conferred upon him "as the first man to whom such recognition for meritorious service is given, the highest retiring allowance which our rules will allow, an annual income of $3000." Besides being a contributor to the magazines and encyclopedias on educational and philosophical subjects, he wrote An Intro- duction to the Study of Philosophy (1889); The Spiritual Sense of Dante's Divina Commedia (1889); Hegel's Logic (1890); and Psychologic Foundations of Education (1898); and edited Appleton's International Education Series and Webster's Inter- national Dictionary. He died on the sth of November 1909.
See Henry R. Evans, "A List of the Writings of William Torrey Harris ' in the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1007 vol. i. (Washington, 1908).
HARRISBURG, the capital of Pennsylvania, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Dauphin county, on the E. bank of the Susque- hanna river, about 105 m. W. by N. of Philadelphia. Pop. (189°), 39,38s; (i9°°), 50,167, of whom 2493 were foreign-born and 4107 were negroes; (1910 census) 64,186. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia & Reading, the Northern Central and the Cumberland Valley railways; and the Pennsyl- vania canal gives it water communication